Lab And/Or Field? Measuring Personality Processes and Their Social Consequences

Abstract

How can researchers study personality processes and their social consequences? In our methodology overview, we first introduce ambulatory assessment methods, which repeatedly measure experiences, physiology and behaviour in people's daily lives based on real–time assessments of self–reports, physiological activity and behavioural observations. Then, we describe methods suitable for assessing personality processes in laboratory settings: self–reports on interpersonal perception, physiological measurements and behavioural observation. We discuss the combination of field and laboratory assessment methods based on their respective strengths and limitations and then highlight ethical issues surrounding the use of these methods. Finally, we propose future avenues for how developments in mobile technology can be used to advance personality research. The increasing availability and the decreasing costs of smartphones, wearable sensors and Internet connectivity offer unique potentials for further understanding the processes underlying how personality exerts broad and important social consequences. Copyright © 2015 European Association of Personality Psychology

Keywords

personality measurement mobile sensing experience sampling ambulatory physiological assessment behavioural observation

Get full access to this article

View all access options for this article.

References

Aron

, Melinat

, Aron

E. N.

, Vallone

R. D.

, & Bator

R. J.

(1997). The experimental generation of interpersonal closeness: A procedure and some preliminary findings. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 23, 363–377.

Asendorpf

J. B.

, Penke

& Back

M. D.

(2011). From dating to mating and relating: Predictors of initial and long–term outcomes of speed–dating in a community sample. European Journal of Personality, 25, 16–30.

Asendorpf

, & Wilpers

(1998). Personality effects on social relationships. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74, 1531–1544.

Back

M. D.

, Baumert

, Denissen

J. J. A.

, Hartung

F.–M.

, Penke

, Schmukle

S. C.

,… Wrzus

(2011). PERSOC: A unified framework for understanding the dynamic interplay of personality and social relationships. European Journal of Personality, 25, 90–107. DOI: 10.1002/per.811

Back

M. D.

, & Kenny

D. A.

(2010). The social relations model: How to understand dyadic processes. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 4, 855–870.

Back

M. D.

, Penke

, Schmukle

S. C.

, Sachse

, Borkenau

, & Asendorpf

(2011). Why mate choices are not as reciprocal as we assume: The role of personality, flirting, and physical attractiveness. European Journal of Personality, 25, 120–132. DOI: 10.1002/per.806

Back

M. D.

, Schmukle

S. C.

, & Egloff

(2009). Predicting actual behavior from the explicit and implicit self–concept of personality. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 97, 533–548. DOI: 10.1037/a0016229

Back

M. D.

, Schmukle

S. C.

, & Egloff

(2011). A closer look at first sight: Social relations lens model analysis of personality and interpersonal attraction at zero acquaintance. European Journal of Personality, 25, 25–238. DOI: 10.1002/per.790

Bakeman

(2000). Behavioral observation and coding. In Reis

H. T.

& Judd

C. M.

(Eds.), Handbook of research methods in social and personality psychology. (pp. 138–159). New York: Cambridge University Press.

10.

Bakeman

, & Gottman

J. M.

(1997). Observing interaction: An introduction to sequential analysis. New York: Cambridge University Press.

11.

Bakeman

, & Quera

(1992). SDIS: A sequential data interchange standard. Behavioral Research Methods, 24, 554–559.

12.

Bakeman

, & Quera

(1995). Analyzing interaction: Sequential analysis with SDIS and GSEQ. New York: Cambridge University Press.

13.

Barta

W. D.

, Tennen

, & Litt

M. D.

(2011). Measurement reactivity in diary research. In Mehl

M. R.

& Connor

(Eds.), Handbook of research methods for studying daily life (pp. 108–123). New York, NY: Guilford Press.

14.

Berrios

, Totterdell

, & Niven

(2015). Why do you make us feel good? Correlates and interpersonal consequences of affective presence in speed–dating. European Journal of Personality, 29, 72–82. DOI: 10.1002/per.1944

15.

Berntson

G. G.

& Cacioppo

J. T.

(2007). Integrative physiology: Homeostasis, allostasis, and the orchestration of systemic physiology. In Cacioppo

J. T.

, Tassinary

L. G.

, & Berntson

G. G.

(Eds.). Handbook of psychophysiology (2nd ed., 433–452). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.

16.

Biel

, & Gatica–Perez

(2013). The YouTube lens: Crowdsourced personality impressions and audiovisual analysis of vlogs. Multimedia, IEEE Transactions on, 15, 41–55.

17.

Biel

Teijero–Mosquera

& Gatica–Perez

(2012). FaceTube: Predicting personality from facial expressions of emotion in online conversational video. ICMI'12, October 22–26, 2012, Santa Monica, California, USA.

18.

Bolger

, Davis

, & Rafaeli

(2003). Diary methods: Capturing life as it is lived. Annual Review of Psychology, 54, 579–616.

19.

Bolger

, & Laurenceau

J.–P.

(2013). Intensive longitudinal methods: An introduction to diary and experience sampling research. New York, NY: Guilford Press.

20.

Bolger

, Stadler

, & Laurenceau

J.–P.

(2012). Power analysis for intensive longitudinal studies. In Mehl

M. R.

& Connor

(Eds.), Handbook of research methods for studying daily life (pp. 285–301). New York, NY: Guilford Press.

21.

Bonnemeier

, Wiegand

U. K. H.

, Brandes

, Kluge

, Katus

H. A.

, Richardt

, & Potratz

(2003). Circadian profile of cardiac autonomic nervous modulation in healthy subjects: Differing effects of aging and gender on heart rate variability. Journal of Cardiovascular Electrophysiology, 14, 791–799. DOI: 10.1046/j.1540-8167.2003.03078.x

22.

Borkenau

, & Liebler

(1995). Observable attributes as manifestations and cues of personality and intelligence. Journal of Personality, 63, 1–25.

23.

Borkenau

, Mauer

, Riemann

, Spinath

F. M.

, & Angleitner

(2004). Thin slices of behavior as cues of personality and intelligence. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 86, 599–614.

24.

Boynton

M. H.

, & Richman

L. S.

(2014). An online daily diary study of alcohol use using Amazon's Mechanical Turk. Drug and Alcohol Review. DOI: 10.1111/dar.12163

25.

Bradburn

N. N.

, Sudman

, & Wansink

(2004). Asking questions: The definitive guide to questionnaire design. San Francisco: Jossey–Bass.

26.

Brockner

(1979). Self–esteem, self–consciousness, and task performance: Replications, extensions, and possible explanations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 37, 447–461.

27.

Brose

, Lindenberger

, & Schmiedek

(2013). Affective states contribute to trait reports of affective well–being. Emotion, 13, 940–948. DOI: 10.1037/a0032401

28.

Brosschot

J. F.

, & Thayer

J. F.

(1998). Anger inhibition, cardiovascular recovery, and vagal function: A model of the link between hostility and cardiovascular disease. Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 20, 326–332.

29.

Brunswik

(1956). Perception and the representative design of psychological experiments. Berkeley: University of California Press.

30.

Buhrmester

, Kwang

, & Gosling

S. D.

(2011). Amazon's Mechanical Turk : A new source of inexpensive, yet high–quality data? Perspectives on Psychological Science, 6, 3–5. DOI: 10.1177/1745691610393980

31.

Burg

M. M.

, & Pickering

T. G.

(2011). The cardiovascular system. In Contrada

R. J.

(Ed.), The handbook of stress science: biology, psychology, and health (pp. 37–45). New York: Springer.

32.

Bussmann

J. B. J.

, Ebner–Priemer

U. W.

, & Fahrenberg

(2009). Ambulatory activity monitoring: Progress in measurement of activity, posture, and specific motion patterns in daily life. European Psychologist, 14, 142–152.

33.

Cacioppo

J. T.

, Tassinary

L. G.

, & Berntson

G. G.

(Eds.), (2007). Handbook of psychophysiology (2nd ed.). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.

34.

Cervone

(2005). Personality architecture: Within–person structures and processes. Annual Review of Psychology, 56, 423–452.

35.

Chittaranjan

, Blom

, & Gatica–Perez

(2013). Mining large–scale smartphone data for personality studies. Personal and Ubiquitous Computing, 17, 433–450.

36.

Chui

, Hoppmann

C. A.

, Gerstorf

, Walker

, & Luszcz

M. A.

(2014). Social partners and momentary affect in the oldest–old: The presence of others benefits affect depending on who we are and who we are with. Developmental Psychology, 50, 728–740. DOI: 10.1037/a0033896

37.

Colvin

C. R.

(1993). Judgeable people: Personality, behavior, and competing explanations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 64, 861–873.

38.

Conner

T. S.

(2014). Experience sampling and ecological momentary assessment with mobile phones. Retrieved from http://www.otago.ac.nz/psychology/otago047475.pdf

39.

Conner

, Barrett

L. F.

, Tugade

M. M.

, & Tenner

(2007). Idiographic personality: The theory and practice of experience sampling. In Robins

R. W.

, Fraley

R. C.

& Krueger

R. F.

(Eds.), Handbook of research methods in personality research (pp. 79–96). New York: Guildford Press.

40.

Conner

, & Lehman

B. J.

(2012). Getting started: Launching a study in daily life. In Mehl

M. R.

& Connor

(Eds.), Handbook of research methods for studying daily life (pp. 89–109). New York, NY: Guilford Press.

41.

Conner

, & Mehl

M. R.

(in press). Ambulatory assessment—Methods for studying everyday life. In Scott

R. A.

, Kosslyn

S. M.

& Stephen

(Eds.), Emerging Trends in the Social and Behavioral Sciences. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications.

42.

Conner

T. S.

, & Reid

K. A.

(2012). Effects of intensive mobile happiness reporting in daily life. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 3, 315–323. DOI: 10.1177/1948550611419677

43.

Cooper

W. H.

, & Withey

M. J.

(2009). The strong situation hypothesis. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 13, 62–72. DOI: 10.1177/1088868308329378

44.

Davidson

R. J.

(1998). Affective style and affective disorders: Perspectives from affective neuroscience. Cognition and Emotion, 12, 307–330.

45.

D'Arcey

J. T.

(2013). Assessing the validity of FaceReader using facial EMG (Master's thesis, California State University). Retrieved from http://hdl.handle.net/10211.4/610

46.

de Montjoye

Y.–A.

, Quoidbach

, Robic

, & Pentland

A. S.

(2013). Predicting personality using novel mobile phone–based metrics. In Social computing, behavioral–cultural modeling and prediction (pp. 48–55). Berlin: Springer.

47.

de Montjoye

Y.–A.

, Wang

S. S.

, Pentland

, Anh

D. T. T.

, & Datta

(2012). On the trusted use of large–scale personal data. IEEE Data Engineering Bulletin, 35, 5–8.

48.

Denissen

J. J. A.

, & Penke

(2008). Motivational individual reaction norms underlying the Five–Factor model of personality: First steps towards a theory–based conceptual framework. Journal of Research in Personality, 42, 1285–1302. DOI: 10.1016/j.jrp.2008.04.002

49.

Diamond

L. M.

, & Otter–Henderson

K. D.

(2007). Physiological measures. In Robins

R. W.

, Fraley

& Krueger

R. F.

(Eds.), Handbook of research methods in personality psychology (pp. 370–388). New York: Guilford Press.

50.

, & Gatica–Perez

(2013). The places of our lives: Visiting patterns and automatic labeling from longitudinal smartphone data. No. EPFL–ARTICLE–192391.

51.

Dufner

, Arslan

R. C.

, Hagemeyer

, Schönbrodt

F. D.

, & Denissen

J. J. A.

(2014). Affective contingencies in the affiliative domain: Physiological assessment, associations with the affiliation motive, and prediction of behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology.

52.

Eagle

, & Pentland

(2005). Reality mining: sensing complex social systems. Personal and Ubiquitous Computing, 10, 255–268. DOI: 10.1007/s00779-005-0046-3

53.

Ebner–Priemer

U. W.

, & Kubiak

(2007). Psychological and psychophysiological ambulatory monitoring: A review of hardware and software solutions. European Journal of Psychological Assessment, 23, 214–226.

54.

Ekman

, & Friesen

W. V.

(1978) Facial Action Coding System. PaloAlto, CA: Consulting Psychologist Press.

55.

Epstein

D. H.

, Tyburski

, Craig

I. M.

, Phillips

K. A.

, Jobes

M. L.

, Vahabzadeh

,… Preston

K. L.

(2014). Real–time tracking of neighborhood surroundings and mood in urban drug misusers: Application of a new method to study behavior in its geographical context. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 134, 22–29. DOI: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2013.09.007

56.

Eyberg

S. M.

, Nelson

M. M.

, Duke

, & Boggs

S. R.

(2009). Manual for the dyadic parent–child interaction coding system (3rd ed.). Retrieved October 20, 2014 from http://pcit.phhp.ufl.edu/Measures.htm

57.

Finkel

E. J.

, & Eastwick

P. W.

(2008). Speed–dating. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 17, 193–197.

58.

Finkel

E. J.

, Eastwick

P. W.

, & Reis

H. T.

(2015). Best research practices in psychology: Illustrating epistemological and pragmatic considerations with the case of relationship science. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 108, 275–297. DOI: 10.1037/pspi0000007

59.

Finkel

E. J.

, Eastwick

P. W.

, & Matthews

(2007). Speed–dating as an invaluable tool for studying romantic attraction: A methodological primer. Personal Relationships, 14, 149–166.

60.

Fleeson

(2001). Toward a structure–and process–integrated view of personality: Traits as density distributions of states. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 80, 1011–1027. DOI: 10.1037/pspi0000007

61.

Fleeson

, & Jayawickreme

(in press). Whole trait theory. Journal of Research in Personality. DOI:10.1016/j.jrp.2014.10.006

62.

Foley

, & Kirschbaum

(2010). Human hypothalamus–pituitary–adrenal axis responses to acute psychosocial stress in laboratory settings. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 35, 91–96.

63.

Fraley

R. C.

(2004). How to conduct behavioral research over the Internet: A beginner's guide to HTML and CGI/Perl. New York: Guilford.

64.

Frauendorfer

, Mast

M. S.

, Nguyen

, & Gatica–Perez

(2014). Nonverbal social sensing in action: Unobtrusive recording and extracting of nonverbal behavior in social interactions illustrated with a research example. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior, 38, 231–245.

65.

Funder

D. C.

(1995). On the accuracy of personality judgment: A realistic approach. Psychological Review, 102, 652–670.

66.

Funder

D. C.

(1999). Personality judgment: A realistic approach to person perception. San Diego, CA: Academic Press.

67.

Funder

D. C.

(2006). Towards a resolution of the personality triad: Persons, situations, and behaviors. Journal of Research in Personality, 40, 21–34. DOI: 10.1016/j.jrp.2005.08.003

68.

Funder

D. C.

, Furr

R. M.

, & Colvin

C. R.

(2000). The Riverside Behavioral Q–sort: A tool for the description of social behavior. Journal of Personality, 68, 451–490.

69.

Funder

D. C.

, & Sneed

C. D.

(1993). Behavioral manifestations of personality: An ecological approach to judgmental accuracy. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 64, 479–490.

70.

Furr

R. M.

, & Funder

D. C.

(2009). Behavioral observation. In Robins

R. W.

, Fraley

& Krueger

R. F.

(Eds.), Handbook of research methods in personality psychology (pp. 273–291). New York: Guilford Press.

71.

Gebauer

J. E.

, Leary

M. R.

, & Neberich

(2012). Big two personality and big three mate preferences: Similarity attracts, but country–level mate preferences crucially matter. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 38, 1579–1593. DOI: 10.1177/0146167212456300

72.

Geisler

F. C. M.

, & Kubiak

(2009). Heart rate variability predicts self–control in goal pursuit. European Journal of Personality, 23, 623–633.

73.

Geukes

, Hutteman

, Küfner

A. C. P.

, Nestler

, & Back

M. D.

(2015). Explaining the longitudinal interplay of personality and social relationships in the laboratory and in the field: The PILS and CONNECT study. Manuscript in preparation.

74.

Goodwin

M. S.

(2012). Passive telemetric monitoring: Novel methods. In Mehl

M. R.

& Connor

(Eds.), Handbook of research methods for studying daily life (pp. 251–266). New York, NY: Guilford Press.

75.

Gonzaga

G. C.

, Campos

, & Bradbury

(2007). Similarity, convergence, and relationship satisfaction in dating and married couples. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 93, 34–48.

76.

Gordis

E. B.

, & Margolin

(2001). The Family Coding System: Studying the relation between marital conflict and family interaction. In Kerig

P. K.

& Lindahl

K. M.

(Eds.), Family observational coding systems: Resources for systemic research. (pp. 111–125). Mahwah, NJ US: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers.

77.

Gosling

S. D.

, John

O. P.

, Craik

K. H.

, & Robins

R. W.

(1998). Do people know how they behave? Self–reported act frequencies compared with on–line codings by observers. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74, 1337–1349.

78.

Gosling

S. D.

, & Johnson

J. A.

(2010). Advanced methods for conducting online behavioral research. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

79.

Gunthert

K. C.

, & Wenze

S. J.

(2012). Daily diary methods. In Mehl

M. R.

& Connor

(Eds.), Handbook of research methods for studying daily life (pp. 144–159). New York, NY: Guilford Press.

80.

Gustafson

D. H.

, McTavish

F. M.

, Chih

M. Y.

, Atwood

A. K.

, Johnson

R. A.

, Boyle

M. G.

,… Shah

(2014). A smartphone application to support recovery from alcoholism a randomized clinical trial. JAMA Psychiatry, 71, 566–572. DOI: 10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2013.4642

81.

Hall

, & Watson

W. H.

(1970). The effects of a normative intervention on group decision–making performance. Human Relations, 23, 299–317.

82.

Hasler

B. P.

, Mehl

M. R.

, Bootzin

R. R.

, & Vazire

(2008). Preliminary evidence of diurnal rhythms in everyday behaviors associated with positive affect. Journal of Research in Personality, 42, 1537–1546. DOI: 10.1016/j.jrp.2008.07.012

83.

Hektner

J. M.

, Schmidt

J. A.

, & Czikszentmihalyi

(2007). Experience sampling method: Measuring the quality of everyday life. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

84.

Henrich

, Heine

S. J.

, & Norenzayan

(2010). The weirdest people in the world? Behavioral & Brain Sciences, 33, 61–83; discussion 83–135.

85.

Hernandez

, Li

, Rehg

J. M.

, & Picard

R. W.

(2014). BioGlass: Physiological Parameter Estimation Using a Head–mounted Wearable Device. Paper presented at the 4th International Conference on Wireless Mobile Communication and Healthcare, Athens, Greece.

86.

Hewson

, & Lason

(2008). Research design and tools for Internet research. In Fielding

, Lee

R. M.

& Blank

(Eds.), Sage handbook of online research methods (pp. 58–78). Thousand Oaks: Sage.

87.

Hicks

, Ramanathan

, Falaki

, Longstaff

, Parameswaran

, Monibi

,… Estrin

(2011). ohmage: An open mobile system for activity and experience sampling. Technical report, CENS Technical Reports, Submitted to ACM Transactions on Embedded Computing Systems.

88.

Hirschmüller

, Egloff

, Schmukle

S. C.

, Nestler

& Back

M. D.

(in press). Accurate judgments of neuroticism at zero acquaintance: A question of relevance. Journal of Personality. DOI: 10.1111/jopy.12097

89.

Hofman

L. F.

(2001). Human saliva as a diagnostic specimen. The Journal of Nutrition, 131, 1621–1625.

90.

Hofmann

, & Patel

P. V.

(2014). SurveySignal: A convenient solution for experience sampling research using participants’ own smartphones. Social Science Computer Review. DOI: 10.1177/0894439314525117

91.

Ickes

(1983). A basic paradigm for the study of unstructured dyadic interaction. New Directions for Methodology of Social & Behavioral Science, 15, 5–21.

92.

Ickes

(1993). Empathic accuracy. Journal of Personality, 61, 587–610.

93.

Ilmarinen

V.–J.

, Vainikainen

M.–P.

, Verkasalo

, & Lönnqvist

J.–E.

(2015). Why are extraverts more popular? Oral fluency mediates the effect of extraversion on popularity in middle childhood. European Journal of Personality, 29, 138–151.

94.

Intille

S. S.

(2012). Emerging technology for studying daily life. In Mehl

M. R.

& Connor

(Eds.), Handbook of research methods for studying daily life (pp. 267–282). New York, NY: Guilford Press.

95.

Jacobs

R. S.

, Hyman

M. R.

, & McQuitty

(2001). Exchange–specific self–disclosure, social self–disclosure, and personal selling. Journal of Marketing Theory and Practice, 9, 48–62.

96.

Jennings

J. R.

, Kamarck

, Stewart

, Eddy

, & Johnson

(1992). Alternate cardiovascular baseline assessment techniques: Vanilla or resting baseline. Psychophysiology, 29, 742–750.

97.

John

O. P.

& Robins

R. W.

(1994). Accuracy and bias in self–perception: Individual differences in self–enhancement and the role of narcissism. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 66, 206–219.

98.

Jokela

, Bleidorn

, Lamb

M. E.

, Gosling

S. D.

, & Rentfrow

P. J.

(2015). Geographically varying associations between personality and life satisfaction in the London metropolitan area. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 112, 725–730. DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1415800112

99.

Kashy

D. A.

, & Kenny

D. A.

(1990). Analysis of family research designs. Communication Research, 17, 462–482.

100.

Kenny

D. A.

(1988). Interpersonal perception: A social relations analysis. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 5, 247–261.

101.

Kenny

D. A.

(1994). Interpersonal perception: A social relations analysis. New York: Guilford Press.

102.

Kenny

D. A.

(2004). PERSON: A general model of interpersonal perception. Personality & Social Psychology Review, 8, 265–280. DOI: 10.1207/s15327957pspr0803_3

103.

King

(2011). Ensuring the data–rich future of the social sciences. Science, 331, 719–721. DOI: 10.1126/science.1197872

104.

Kirschbaum

, Pirke

K. M.

, & Hellhammer

D. H.

(1993). The ‘Trier Social Stress Test’–a tool for investigating psychobiological stress responses in a laboratory setting. Neuropsychobiology, 28, 76–81.

105.

Kogan

, Oveis

, Carr

E. W.

, Gruber

, Mauss

I. B.

, Shallcross

,… Keltner

(2014). Vagal activity is quadratically related to prosocial traits, prosocial emotions, and observer perceptions of prosociality. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 107, 1051–1063. DOI: 10.1037/a0037509

106.

Kramer

A. D.

, Guillory

J. E.

, & Hancock

J. T.

(2014). Experimental evidence of massive–scale emotional contagion through social networks. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 111, 8788–8790. DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1320040111

107.

Kranczioch

, Zich

, Schierholz

, & Sterr

(2014). Mobile EEG and its potential to promote the theory and application of imagery–based motor rehabilitation. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 91, 10–15.

108.

Kreibig

S. D.

(2010). Autonomic nervous system activity in emotion: A review. Biological Psychology, 84, 394–421. DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsycho.2010.03.010

109.

Kubiak

, & Krog

(2012). Computerized sampling of experience and behavior. In Mehl

M. R.

& Connor

(Eds.), Handbook of research methods for studying daily life. (pp. 124–143). New York, NY: Guilford Press.

110.

Kudielka

B. M.

, Gierens

, Hellhammer

D. H.

, Wüst

, & Schlotz

(2012). Salivary cortisol in ambulatory assessment—some dos, some don'ts, and some open questions. Psychosomatic Medicine, 74, 418–431.

111.

Kurzius

& Borkenau

(2015). Antecedents and consequences of mimicry. European Journal of Personality, 29, 107–124.

112.

Lane

N. D.

, Lin

, Mohammod

, Yang

, Lu

, Cardone

,… Campbell

A. T.

(2014). BeWell: Sensing sleep, physical activities and social interactions to promote well–being. Journal of Mobile Networks and Applications, 19, 345–359.

113.

Larson

G. M.

& Sbarra

D. A.

(2015). Participating in research on romantic breakups promotes emotional recovery via changes in self–concept clarity. Social Psychologial and Personality Science. DOI:10.1177/1948550614563085

114.

Lathia

, Pejovic

, Rachuri

K. K.

, Mascolo

, Musolesi

, & Rentfrow

P. J.

(2013). Smartphones for large–scale behavior change interventions. Pervasive Computing, IEEE, 12, 66–73. DOI: 10.1109/MPRV.2013.56

115.

Leiner

D. J.

(2014). SoSci Survey (Version 2.4.00–i) [Computer Software]. Available from https://www.soscisurvey.de

116.

Letzring

T. D.

(2008). The good judge of personality: Characteristics, behaviors, and observer accuracy. Journal of Research in Personality, 42, 914–932.

117.

Letzring

T. D.

, Wells

S. M.

, & Funder

D. C.

(2006). Information quantity and quality affect the realistic accuracy of personality judgment. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 91, 111–123. DOI: 10.1037/0022-3514.91.1.111

118.

Littlewort

, Whitehill

, Tingfan

, Fasel

, Frank

, Movellan

, & Bartlett

(2011, 21–25 March 2011). The Computer Expression Recognition Toolbox (CERT). Paper presented at the Automatic Face & Gesture Recognition and Workshops (FG 2011), 2011 IEEE International Conference on XXX.

119.

Lovallo

W. R.

, & Thomas

T. L.

(2007). Stress hormones in psychophysiological research: Emotional, behavioral, and cognitive implications. In Cacioppo

J. T.

, Tassinary

L. G.

, & Berntson

G. G.

(Eds.), Handbook of psychophysiology (2nd ed., pp. 342–367). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.

120.

, Frauendorfer

, Rabbi

, Mast

M. S.

, Chittaranjan

G. T.

, Campbell

A. T.

,… Choudhury

(2012). StressSense: Detecting stress in unconstrained acoustic environments using smartphones. In Proceedings of the 2012 ACM Conference on Ubiquitous Computing (pp. 351–360). ACM.

121.

, Pan

, Lane

N. D.

, Choudhury

, & Campbell

A. T.

(2009). SoundSense: scalable sound sensing for people–centric applications on mobile phones. Paper presented at the Proceedings of the 7th international conference on Mobile systems, applications, and services.

122.

Luhmann

, Orth

, Specht

, Kandler

, & Lucas

R. E.

(2014). Studying changes in life circumstances and personality: It's about time. European Journal of Personality, 28, 256–266.

123.

MacKerron

, & Mourato

(2013). Happiness is greater in natural environments. Global Environmental Change, 23, 992–1000.

124.

Magnusson

M. S.

(2000). Discovering hidden time patterns in behavior: T–patterns and their detection. Behavior Research Methods, 32, 93–110.

125.

Mairesse

, Walker

M. A.

, Mehl

M. R.

, & Moore

R. K.

(2007). Using linguistic cues for the automatic recognition of personality in conversation and text. Journal of Artificial Intelligence Research, 30, 457–500.

126.

Mehl

M. R.

, & Conner

T. S.

(2012). Handbook of research methods for studying daily life. New York, NY: Guilford Press.

127.

Mehl

M. R.

, Gosling

S. D.

, & Pennebaker

J. W.

(2006). Personality in its natural habitat: Manifestations and implicit folk theories of personality in daily life. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 90, 862–877. DOI: 10.1037/0022-3514.90.5.862

128.

Mehl

M. R.

, & Holleran

S. E.

(2007). An empirical analysis of the obtrusiveness of and participants’ compliance with the electronically activated recorder (EAR). European Journal of Psychological Assessment, 23, 248–257. DOI: 10.1027/1015-5759.23.4.248

129.

Mehl

M. R.

, Pennebaker

J. W.

, Crow

D. M.

, Dabbs

, & Price

J. H.

(2001). The Electronically Activated Recorder (EAR): A device for sampling naturalistic daily activities and conversations. Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, and Computers, 33, 517–523.

130.

Mehl

M. R.

, Robbins

M. L.

, & Deters

F. G.

(2012). Naturalistic observation of health–relevant social processes: The electronically activated recorder methodology in psychosomatics. Psychosomatic Medicine, 74, 410–417. DOI: 10.1097/PSY.0b013e3182545470

131.

Mehl

M. R.

, Vazire

, Ramirez–Esparza

, Slatcher

R. B.

, & Pennebaker

J. W.

(2007). Are women really more talkative than men? Science, 317, 82. DOI: 10.1126/science.1139940

132.

Miller

(2012). The smartphone psychology manifesto. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 7, 221–237. DOI: 10.1177/1745691612441215

133.

Montoliu

, Blom

, & Gatica–Perez

(2013). Discovering places of interest in everyday life from smartphone data. Multimedia Tools and Applications, 62, 179–207.

134.

Morse

P. J.

, Sauerberger

K. S.

, Todd

, & Funder

(2015). Relationships between personality, situational construal, and social outcomes. European Journal of Personality, 29, 97–106.

135.

Moskowitz

D. S.

, & Sadikaj

(2012). Event–contingent recording. In Mehl

M. R.

& Connor

(Eds.), Handbook of research methods for studying daily life (pp. 160–175). New York, NY: Guilford Press.

136.

Mund

& Neyer

F. J.

(2014). Treating personality–relationship transactions with respect: Narrow facets, advanced models, and extended time frames. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 107, 352–368. DOI:

137.

Myrtek

, Foerster

, & Brügner

(2001). Freiburger Monitoring System (FMS). Frankfurt/M: Peter Lang.

138.

Narayanan

S. S. G.

, Panayiotis

(2013). Behavioral signal processing: Deriving human behavioral informatics from speech and language. Proceedings of the IEEE, 101, 1203–1233.

139.

Nesselroade

J. R.

(1991). The warp and woof of the developmental fabric. In Downs

, Liben

, & Palermo

(Eds.), Visions of development, the environment, and aesthetics: The legacy of Joachim F. Wohlwill. (pp. 213–240). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

140.

Nestler

, Grimm

, & Schönbrodt

(2015). The social consequences and mechanisms of personality: How to analyze longitudinal data from dyadic, round–robin, and network designs. European Journal of Personality, 29, 272–295.

141.

Neyer

F. J.

, & Asendorpf

J. B.

(2001). Personality–relationship transaction in young adulthood. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81, 1190–1204.

142.

Neyer

F. J.

, Mund

, Zimmermann

, & Wrzus

(2013). Personality–relationship transactions revisited. Journal of Personality. DOI: 10.1111/jopy.12063

143.

Onnela

J.–P.

, Waber

B. N.

, Pentland

, Schnorf

, & Lazer

(2014). Using sociometers to quantify social interaction patterns. Scientific Reports, 4. DOI: 10.1038/srep05604

144.

Ozer

D. J.

, & Benet–Martinez

(2006). Personality and the prediction of consequential outcomes. Annual Review of Psychology, 57, 401–421.

145.

Paolacci

, & Chandler

(2014). Inside the turk: Understanding Mechanical Turk as a participant pool. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 23, 184–188. DOI: 10.1177/0963721414531598

146.

Paunonen

S. V.

(2003). Big Five factors of personality and replicated predictions of behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84, 411–422.

147.

Qiu

, Lin

, Ramsay

, & Yang

(2012). You are what you tweet: Personality expression and perception on Twitter. Journal of Research in Personality, 46, 710–718. DOI: 10.1016/j.jrp.2012.08.008

148.

Rachuri

K. K.

, Efstratiou

, Leontiadis

, Mascolo

, & Rentfrow

P. J.

(2013). METIS: Exploring mobile phone sensing offloading for efficiently supporting social sensing applications. Paper presented at the Pervasive Computing and Communications (PerCom), 2013 IEEE International Conference on.

149.

Rachuri

K. K.

, & Mascolo

(2011), September. Smartphone based systems for social psychological research: Challenges and design guidelines. Paper presented at the 3rd ACM workshop on Wireless of the students, by the students, for the students.

150.

Raento

, Oulasvirta

, & Eagle

(2009). Smartphones: An emerging tool for social scientists. Sociological Methods & Research, 37, 426–454. DOI: 10.1177/0049124108330005

151.

Rahman

, Adams

A. T.

, Zhang

, Cherry

, Zhou

, Peng

, & Choudhury

(2014). BodyBeat: A mobile system for sensing non–speech body sounds. Paper presented at the Proceedings of the 12th annual international conference on Mobile systems, applications, and services.

152.

Ram

, Conroy

D. E.

, Pincus

A. L.

, Lorek

, Rebar

, Roche

M. J.

, & Gerstorf

(2014). Examining the interplay of processes across multiple time–scales: Illustration with the Intraindividual Study of Affect, Health, and Interpersonal Behavior (iSAHIB). Research in Human Development, 11, 142–160. Doi: 10.1080/15427609.2014.906739

153.

Ramanathan

, Alquaddoomi

, Falaki

, George

, Hsieh

, Jenkins

,… Estrin

(2012), May. ohmage: An open mobile system for activity and experience sampling. In Pervasive Computing Technologies for Healthcare (PervasiveHealth), 2012 6th International Conference on (pp. 203–204). IEEE.

154.

Ramírez–Esparza

, Mehl

M. R.

, Álvarez–Bermúdez

, & Pennebaker

J. W.

(2009). Are Mexicans more or less sociable than Americans? Insights from a naturalistic observation study. Journal of Research in Personality, 43, 1–7.

155.

Rauers

, Blanke

, & Riediger

(2013). Everyday empathic accuracy in younger and older couples: Do you need to see your partner to know their feelings? Psychological Science, 24, 2210–2217. DOI: 10.1177/0956797613490747

156.

Rauthmann

J. F.

, Gallardo–Pujol

, Guillaume

E. M.

, Todd

, Nave

C. S.

, Sherman

R. A.

,… Funder

D. C.

(2014). The situational eight DIAMONDS: A taxonomy of major dimensions of situation characteristics. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 107, 677–718. DOI: 10.1037/a0037250

157.

Rauthmann

, Sherman

R. A.

, & Funder

D. C.

(2015). Principles of situation research: Towards a better understanding of psychological situations. European Journal of Personality, in press.

158.

Reis

H. T.

(2008). Reinvigorating the concept of situation in social psychology. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 12, 311–329.

159.

Reis

H. T.

(2012). Why researchers should think “real–world”: A conceptual rationale. In Mehl

M. R.

& Connor

(Eds.), Handbook of research methods for studying daily life. (pp. 3–21). New York, NY: Guilford Press.

160.

Reis

H. T.

, & Gable

S. L.

(2000). Event sampling and other methods for studying everyday experience. In Reis

H. T.

& Judd

C. M.

(Eds.), Handbook of Research Methods in Social and Personality Psychology. (pp. 190–222). New York: Cambridge University Press.

161.

Rentfrow

P. J.

, & Gosling

S. D.

(2006). Message in a ballad: The role of music preferences in interpersonal perception. Psychological Science, 17, 236–242.

162.

Reitz

A. K.

, Zimmermann

, Hutteman

, Specht

, & Neyer

F. J.

(2014). How peers make a difference: The role of peer groups and peer relationships in personality development. European Journal of Personality, 28, 279–288.

163.

Riediger

, Wrzus

, Klipker

, Müller

, Schmiedek

, & Wagner

G. G.

(2014). Outside of the laboratory: Associations of working–memory performance with psychological and physiological arousal vary with age. Psychology and Aging, 29, 103–114. DOI: 10.1037/a0035766

164.

Roberts

B. W.

, Kuncel

N. R.

, Shiner

, Caspi

, & Goldberg

L. R.

(2007). The power of personality: The comparative validity of personality traits, socio–economic status, and cognitive ability for predicting important life outcomes. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 2, 313–345.

165.

Robins

R. W.

& Beer

J. S.

(2001). Positive illusions about the self: Short–term benefits and long–term costs. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 80, 340–352.

166.

Robins

R. W.

, Fraley

R. C.

, & Krueger

R. F.

(Eds.). (2009). Handbook of research methods in personality psychology. New York, NY: Guilford Press.

167.

Robinson

E. A.

, & Eyberg

S. M.

(1981). The dyadic parent–child interaction coding system: Standardization and validation. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 49, 245–250. DOI: 10.1037/0022-006X.49.2.245

168.

Sadikaj

, Moskowitz

D. S.

, Zuroff

D. C.

(2015). Felt security in daily interactions as a mediator of the effect of attachment on satisfaction with a romantic partner. European Journal of Personality, 29, 187–200.

169.

Sbarra

D. A.

(2006). Predicting the onset of emotional recovery following nonmarital relationship dissolution: Survival analyses of sadness and anger. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 32, 298–312.

170.

Schaffhuser

, Allemand

, & Martin

(2014). Personality traits and relationship satisfaction in intimate couples: Three perspectives on personality. European Journal of Personality, 28, 120–133.

171.

Schinka

J. A.

, & Velicer

W. F.

(2012). Handbook of Psychology: Research Methods. (Vol. 2). Weiner

I. B.

(Ed.), Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.

172.

Schönbrodt

F. D.

, & Perugini

(2013). At what sample size do correlations stabilize?. Journal of Research in Personality, 47, 609–612.

173.

Schlotz

(2012). Ambulatory psychoneuroendocrinology: Assessing salivary cortisol and other hormones in daily life. In Mehl

M. R.

& Connor

(Eds.), Handbook of research methods for studying daily life (pp. 193–209). New York, NY: Guilford Press.

174.

Schultheiss

O. C.

, & Stanton

S. J.

(2009). Assessment of salivary hormones. In Harmon–Jones

& Beer

J. S.

(Eds.), Methods in Social Neuroscience (pp. 17–44). New York: The Guilford Press.

175.

Schwarz

, & Oyserman

(2001). Asking questions about behavior: Cognition, communication, and questionnaire construction. American Journal of Evaluation, 22, 127–160.

176.

Scully

, Lee

, Meyer

, Gorbach

A. M.

, Granquist–Fraser

, Mendelson

, & Chon

K. H.

(2012). Physiological parameter monitoring from optical recordings with a mobile phone. Biomedical Engineering, IEEE Transactions on, 59, 303–306. DOI:10.1109/TBME.2011.2163157

177.

Sherman

R. A.

, Nave

C. S.

, & Funder

D. C.

(2013). Situational construal is related to personality and gender. Journal of Research in Personality, 47, 1–14. DOI: 10.1016/j.jrp.2012.10.008

178.

Shilton

(2009). Four billion little brothers?: Privacy, mobile phones, and ubiquitous data collection. Communications of the ACM, 52, 48–53.

179.

Stappenbeck

C. A.

, & Fromme

(2014). The effects of alcohol, emotion regulation, and emotional arousal on the dating aggression intentions of men and women. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 28, 10–19. DOI: 10.1037/a0032204

180.

Stark

, Shafran

, & Kaye

(2014). Inferring social nature of conversations from words: Experiments on a corpus of everyday telephone conversations. Computer Speech & Language, 28, 224–239. DOI: 10.1016/j.csl.2013.06.003

181.

Stopfer

J. M.

, Egloff

, Nestler

, & Back

M. D.

(2014). Personality expression and impression formation in online social networks: An integrative approach to understanding the processes of accuracy, impression management, and meta–accuracy. European Journal of Personality, 28, 73–94.

182.

Sweeney

(1997). Weaving technology and policy together to maintain confidentiality. Journal of Law, Medicine & Ethics, 25, 98–110.

183.

Terzis

, Moridis

C. N.

, & Economides

A. A.

(2010). Measuring instant emotions during a self–assessment test: the use of FaceReader. In Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Methods and Techniques in Behavioral Research (p. 18). ACM.

184.

Trull

T. J.

, & Ebner–Priemer

(2014). The role of ambulatory assessment in psychological science. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 23, 466–470.

185.

Underwood

M. K.

, Rosen

L. H.

, More

, Ehrenreich

S. E.

, & Gentsch

J. K.

(2012). The blackberry project: Capturing the content of adolescents’ text messaging. Developmental Psychology, 48, 295–302.

186.

Vater

& Schröder–Abé

(2015). Explaining the link between personality and relationship satisfaction: Emotion regulation and interpersonal behavior in conflict discussions. European Journal of Personality, 29, 201–215.

187.

Vazire

(2010). Who knows what about a person? The self–other knowledge asymmetry (SOKA) model. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 98, 281–300. DOI: 10.1037/a0017908

188.

de Vries

S. I.

, Bakker

, Hopman–Rock

, Hirasing

R. A.

, & van Mechelen

(2006). Clinimetric review of motion sensors in children and adolescents. Journal of Clinical Epidemiology, 59, 670–680.

189.

Vogel

, Monesson

, Scott

L. S.

(2012). Building biases in infancy: the influence of race on face and voice emotion matching. Developmental Science, 15, 359–372.

190.

Wagerman

S. A.

, & Funder

D. C.

(2009). Situations. In Corr

P. J.

& Mathews

(Eds.), Cambridge handbook of personality (pp. 27–42). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.

191.

Wang

, Chen

, Li

, Harari

, Tignor

,… Campbell

A. T.

(2014). StudentLife: Assessing mental health, academic performance and behavioral trends of college students using smartphones. Paper presented at the Proceedings of the ACM Conference on Ubiquitous Computing.

192.

Weiss

R. L.

, & Heyman

R. E.

(1990). Observation of marital interaction. In Fincham

F. D.

& Bradbury

T. N.

(Eds.), The psychology of marriage: Basic issues and applications. (pp. 87–117). New York, NY US: Guilford Press.

193.

Weiss

R. L.

, & Summers

K. J.

(1983). Marital interaction coding system–III. In Filsinger

E. E.

(Ed.), Marriage and family assessment: A source book for family therapy (pp. 85–115). Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.

194.

Westermann

, Spies

, Stahl

, & Hesse

F. W.

(1996). Relative effectiveness and validity of mood induction procedures: A meta–analysis. European Journal of Social Psychology, 26, 557–580. DOI: 10.1002/(SICI)1099-0992

195.

Wettstein

, & Jakob

(2010). Assessing aggressive adolescents’ environments from their perspective by using camera–glasses: An innovative new method. Journal of Aggression, Conflict and Peace Research, 2, 23–32. DOI: 10.5042/jacpr.2010.0139

196.

Wheeler

, & Reis

H. T.

(1991). Self–recording of everyday life events: Origins, types, and uses. Journal of Personality, 59, 339–354.

197.

Wilhelm

F. H.

, Grossman

, & Müller

M. I.

(2012). Bridging the gap between the laboratory and the real world: Integrative ambulatory psychophysiology. In Mehl

M. R.

& Connor

(Eds.), Handbook of research methods for studying daily life (pp. 210–234). New York, NY: Guilford Press.

198.

Wilhelm

, & Perrez

(2004). How is my partner feeling in different daily–life settings? Accuracy of spouses’ judgements about their partner's feelings at work and at home. Social Indicators Research, 67, 183–246.

199.

Wolf

P. S. A.

, & Jacobs

W. J.

(2010). GPS technology and human psychological research: A methodological proposal. Journal of Methods and Measures in the Social Sciences, 1, 1–5.

200.

Wrzus

, Müller

, Lindenberger

, Wagner

G. G.

, & Riediger

(2014). Affect dynamics across the lifespan: With age, heart rate reacts less strongly, but recovers more slowly from emotional strain. Psychology and Aging, 29, 563–576. DOI: 10.1037/a0037451

201.

Wrzus

, Wagner

G. G.

, & Riediger

(2015). Personality–situation–fit across the life span. Manuscript submitted for publication.