Why Narcissists Are Unwilling to Apologize: The Role of Empathy and Guilt

Abstract

We hypothesized that narcissists would be unwilling to apologize for their interpersonal transgressions, and that reduced levels of self–reported empathy and guilt would serially mediate this effect. Narcissism is characterized by little empathy for the victim, which reduces guilt about one's transgressions. Low guilt, in turn, is associated with unwillingness to apologize. In Study 1, we assessed dispositional narcissism, empathy, guilt, and willingness to apologize. In Study 2, we assessed dispositional narcissism and obtained state measures of empathy, guilt, and willingness to apologize. In Study 3, we manipulated narcissism and collected state measures of empathy, guilt, and willingness to apologize. Narcissism was negatively associated with (Studies 1–2) and decreased (Study 3) willingness to apologize, with this link being explained (i.e., serially mediated) by low empathy and guilt. Finally, in Study 4, we showed that antagonistic narcissism (i.e., narcissistic rivalry), but not agentic narcissism (i.e., narcissistic admiration), was negatively associated with willingness to apologize and apologizing behaviour. In all, narcissists are unwilling to apologize for their transgressions, as they experience little empathy for their victims and lower guilt. Copyright © 2017 European Association of Personality Psychology

Keywords

narcissism apologizing empathy guilt perpetrators

Get full access to this article

View all access options for this article.

References

Ackerman

R. A.

, Witt

E. A.

, Donnellan

M. B.

, Trzesniewski

K. H.

, Robins

R. W.

, & Kashy

D. A.

(2011). What does the narcissistic personality inventory really measure? Assessment, 18, 76–87 https://doi.org/10.1177/1073191110382845.

Aderman

, & Berkowitz

(1970). Observational set, empathy, and helping. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 14, 141–148.

Alicke

M. D.

, & Sedikides

(2009). Self–enhancement and self–protection: What they are and what they do. European Review of Social Psychology, 20, 1–48 https://doi.org/10.1080/10463280802613866.

Back

M. D.

, Küfner

A. C.

, Dufner

, Gerlach

T. M.

, Rauthmann

J. F.

, & Denissen

J. J.

(2013). Narcissistic admiration and rivalry: Disentangling the bright and dark sides of narcissism. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 105, 1013–1037 https://doi.org/10.1037/a0034431.

Barry

C. T.

, & Malkin

M. L.

(2010). The relation between adolescent narcissism and internalizing problems depends on the conceptualization of narcissism. Journal of Research in Personality, 44, 684–690 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2010.09.001.

Basford

T. E.

, Offermann

L. R.

, & Behrend

T. S.

(2014). Please accept my sincerest apologies: Examining follower reactions to leader apology. Journal of Business Ethics, 119, 99–117 https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551–012–1613–y.

Basil

D. Z.

, Ridgway

N. M.

, & Basil

M. D.

(2008). Guilt and giving: A process model of empathy and efficacy. Psychology & Marketing, 25, 1–23 https://doi.org/10.1002/mar.20200.

Baumeister

R. F.

, Reis

H. T.

, & Delespaul

P. A.

(1995). Subjective and experiential correlates of guilt in daily life. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 21, 1256–1268 https://doi.org/10.1177/01461672952112002.

Baumeister

R. F.

, Stillwell

A. M.

, & Heatherton

T. F.

(1994). Guilt: An interpersonal approach. Psychological Bulletin, 115, 243–267 https://doi.org/10.1037/0033–2909.115.2.243.

10.

Baumeister

R. F.

, Stillwell

, & Wotman

S. R.

(1990). Victim and perpetrator accounts of interpersonal conflict: Autobiographical narratives about anger. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 59, 994–1005 https://doi.org/10.1037/0022–3514.59.5.994.

11.

Belsley

D. A.

(1984). Demeaning conditioning diagnostics through centering. The American Statistician, 38, 73–77 https://doi.org/10.2307/2683236.

12.

Belsley

D. A.

(1991). A guide to using collinearity diagnostics. Computer Science in Economics and Management, 4, 33–50 https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00426854.

13.

Belsley

D. A.

, Kuh

, & Welsch

R. E.

(1980). Regression diagnostics: Identifying influential data and sources of collinearity. New York, NY: Wiley.

14.

Berg

, Dickhaut

, & McCabe

(1995). Trust, reciprocity and social history. Games and Economic Behavior, 10, 122–142 https://doi.org/10.1006/game.1995.1027.

15.

Bradlee

P. M.

, & Emmons

R. A.

(1992). Locating narcissism within the interpersonal circumplex and the five–factor model. Personality and Individual Differences, 13, 821–830 https://doi.org/10.1016/0191–8869(92)90056–U.

16.

Brown

, González

, Zagefka

, Manzi

, & Čehajić

(2008). Nuestra culpa: Collective guilt and shame as predictors of reparation for historical wrongdoing. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 94, 75–90 https://doi.org/10.1037/0022–3514.94.1.75.

17.

Brummelman

, Thomaes

, & Sedikides

(2016). Separating narcissism from self–esteem. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 25, 8–13 https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721415619737.

18.

Bullock

J. G.

, Green

D. P.

, & Ha

S. E.

(2010). Yes, but what's the mechanism? (don't expect an easy answer). Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 98, 550–558 https://doi.org/10.1037/a0018933.

19.

Bushman

B. J.

, & Baumeister

R. F.

(1998). Threatened egotism, narcissism, self–esteem, and direct and displaced aggression: Does self–love or self–hate lead to violence? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75, 219–229 https://doi.org/10.1037/0022–3514.75.1.219.

20.

Byrne

, Barling

, & Dupré

K. E.

(2014). Leader apologies and employee and leader well–being. Journal of Business Ethics, 121, 91–106 https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551–013–1685–3.

21.

Campbell

W. K.

(1999). Narcissism and romantic attraction. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77, 1254–1270 https://doi.org/10.1037/0022–3514.77.6.1254.

22.

Campbell

W. K.

, Reeder

G. D.

, Sedikides

, & Elliot

A. J.

(2000). Narcissism and comparative self–enhancement strategies. Journal of Research in Personality, 34, 329–347 https://doi.org/10.1006/jrpe.2000.2282.

23.

Campbell

W. K.

, Rudich

, & Sedikides

(2002). Narcissism, self–esteem, and the positivity of self–views: Two portraits of self–love. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 28, 358–368. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167202286007.

24.

Cheung

M. W. L.

(2015). metaSEM: An R package for meta–analysis using structural equation modeling. Frontiers in Psychology, 5, 1521.

25.

Cheung

M. W.–L.

, & Chan

(2005). Meta–analytic structural equation modeling: A two–stage approach. Psychological Methods, 10, 40–64. https://doi.org/10.1037/1082–989X.10.1.40.

26.

Cheung

M. W. L.

, & Cheung

S. F.

(2016). Random–effects models for meta–analytic structural equation modeling: Review, issues, and illustrations. Research Synthesis Methods, 7, 140–155. https://doi.org/10.1002/jrsm.1166.

27.

Cohen

T. R.

, Wolf

S. T.

, Panter

A. T.

, & Insko

C. A.

(2011). Introducing the GASP scale: A new measure of guilt and shame proneness. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 100, 947–966. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0022641.

28.

Coke

J. S.

, Batson

C. D.

, & McDavis

(1978). Empathic mediation of helping: A two–stage model. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 36, 752–766. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022–3514.36.7.752.

29.

Cryder

C. E.

, Springer

, & Morewedge

C. K.

(2012). Guilty feelings, targeted actions. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 38, 607–618. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167211435796.

30.

Darby

B. W.

, & Schlenker

B. R.

(1982). Children's reactions to apologies. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 43, 742–753. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022–3514.43.4.742.

31.

Davis

M. H.

(1980). A multidimensional approach to individual differences in empathy. JSAS Catalog of Selected Documents in Psychology, 10, 85.

32.

Davis

M. H.

(1983). Measuring individual differences in empathy: Evidence for a multidimensional approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 44, 113–126. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022–3514.44.1.113.

33.

De Hooge

I. E.

, Nelissen

, Breugelmans

S. M.

, & Zeelenberg

(2011). What is moral about guilt? Acting “prosocially” at the disadvantage of others. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 100, 462–473. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0021459.

34.

De Waal–Andrews

W. G.

(2012). What it takes to attain status in face–to–face groups: The importance of distinguishing between dominance and prestige hierarchies. Unpublished dissertation, University of Southampton.

35.

Desmet

P. T.

, & Leunissen

J. M.

(2014). How many pennies for your pain? Willingness to compensate as a function of expected future interaction and intentionality feedback. Journal of Economic Psychology, 43, 105–113. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joep.2014.05.002.

36.

DeYoung

C. G.

(2006). Higher–order factors of the Big Five in a multi–informant sample. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 91, 1138–1151. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022–3514.91.6.1138.

37.

DeYoung

C. G.

, Peterson

J. B.

, & Higgins

D. M.

(2002). Higher–order factors of the Big Five predict conformity: Are there neuroses of health? Personality and Individual Differences, 33, 533–552. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0191–8869(01)00171–4.

38.

Digman

J. M.

(1997). Higher–order factors of the Big Five. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73, 1246–1256. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022–3514.73.6.1246.

39.

Dunlop

P. D.

, Lee

, Ashton

M. C.

, Butcher

S. B.

, & Dykstra

(2015). Please accept my sincere and humble apologies: The HEXACO model of personality and the proclivity to apologize. Personality and Individual Differences, 79, 140–145. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2015.02.004.

40.

Eisenberg

, & Miller

P. A.

(1987). The relation of empathy to prosocial and related behaviors. Psychological Bulletin, 101, 91–119. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033–2909.101.1.91.

41.

Emmons

R. A.

(1987). Narcissism: Theory and measurement. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52, 11–17. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022–3514.52.1.11.

42.

Erdle

, Gosling

S. D.

, & Potter

(2009). Does self–esteem account for the higher–order factors of the Big Five? Personality and Individual Differences, 43, 921–922. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2009.04.012.

43.

Exline

J. J.

, Baumeister

R. F.

, Bushman

B. J.

, Campbell

W. K.

, & Finkel

E. J.

(2004). Too proud to let go: Narcissistic entitlement as a barrier to forgiveness. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 87, 894–912. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022–3514.87.6.894.

44.

Fehr

, Gelfand

M. J.

, & Nag

(2010). The road to forgiveness: A meta–analytic synthesis of its situational and dispositional correlates. Psychological Bulletin, 136, 894–914. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0019993.

45.

Fiedler

, Schott

, & Meiser

(2011). What mediation analysis can (not) do. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 47, 1231–1236. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2011.05.007.

46.

Gebauer

J. E.

, Sedikides

, Verplanken

, & Maio

G. R.

(2012). Communal narcissism. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 103, 854–878. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0029629.

47.

Gebauer

J. E.

, Wagner

, Sedikides

, & Neberich

(2013). The relation between agency–communion and self–esteem is moderated by culture, religiosity, age, and sex: Evidence for the self–centrality breeds self–enhancement principle. Journal of Personality, 81, 261–275 https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467–6494.2012.00807.x.

48.

Golec de Zavala

, Cichocka

, Eidelson

, & Jayawickreme

(2009). Collective narcissism and its social consequences. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 97, 1074–1096. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0016904.

49.

Green

J. D.

, Davis

J. L.

, Luchies

L. B.

, Coy

A. E.

, Van Tongeren

D. R.

, Reid

C. A.

, & Finkel

E. J.

(2013). Victims versus perpetrators: Affective and empathic forecasting regarding transgressions in romantic relationships. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 49, 329–333. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2012.12.004.

50.

Hayes

A. F.

(2013). Introduction to mediation, moderation and conditional process analysis: A regression–based approach. New York, NY: The Guilford Press.

51.

Heider

(1958). The psychology of interpersonal relations. London, UK: John Wiley and Sons, Inc.

52.

Hepper

E. G.

, Hart

C. M.

, Meek

, Cisek

S. Z.

, & Sedikides

(2014a). Narcissism and empathy in young offenders and non–offenders. European Journal of Personality, 28, 201–210. https://doi.org/10.1002/per.1939.

53.

Hepper

E. G.

, Hart

C. M.

, & Sedikides

(2014b). Moving narcissus: Can narcissists be empathic? Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 40, 1079–1091. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167214535812.

54.

Hoffman

M. L.

(1977). Sex differences in empathy and related behaviors. Psychological Bulletin, 84, 712–722.

55.

Horton

R. S.

, & Sedikides

(2009). Narcissistic responding to ego threat: When the status of the evaluator matters. Journal of Personality, 77, 1493–1525. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467–6494.2009.00590.x.

56.

Howell

A. J.

, Dopko

R. L.

, Turowski

J. B.

, & Buro

(2011). The disposition to apologize. Personality and Individual Differences, 51, 509–514. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2011.05.009.

57.

John

O. P.

, Donahue

E. M.

, & Kentle

R. L.

(1991). The “Big–Five” inventory—Versions 4a and 54. Berkeley, CA: University of California, Berkeley, Institute of Personality and Social Research.

58.

John

O. P.

, & Srivastava

(1999). The big five trait taxonomy: History, measurement, and theoretical perspectives. In Pervin

L. A.

, & John

O. P.

(Eds.), Handbook of personality: Theory and research (pp. 102–138). New York: Guilford Press.

59.

Jonason

P. K.

, & Webster

G. D.

(2010). The dirty dozen: A concise measure of the dark triad. Psychological Assessment, 22, 420–432. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0019265.

60.

Kellerman

(2006). When should a leader apologize and when not? Harvard Business Review, 84, 72–81.

61.

Kenny

D. A.

, & Judd

C. M.

(2014). Power anomalies in testing mediation. Psychological Science, 25, 334–339. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797613502676.

62.

Ketelaar

, & Au

W. T.

(2003). The effects of feelings of guilt on the behavior of uncooperative individuals in repeated social bargaining games: An affect–as–information interpretation of the role of emotion in social interaction. Cognition and Emotion, 17, 429–453. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699930143000662.

63.

Kim

P. H.

, Ferrin

D. L.

, Cooper

C. D.

, & Dirks

K. T.

(2004). Removing the shadow of suspicion: The effects of apology versus denial for repairing competence–versus integrity–a9010.89.1.104

64.

Lazare

(2004). On apology. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

65.

Leith

K. P.

, & Baumeister

R. F.

(1998). Empathy, shame, guilt, and narratives of interpersonal conflicts: Guilt–prone people are better at perspective taking. Journal of Personality, 66, 1–37. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467–6494.00001.

66.

Lemay

E. P.

Jr. , Overall

N. C.

, & Clark

M. S.

(2012). Experiences and interpersonal consequences of hurt feelings and anger. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 103, 982. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0030064.

67.

Leunissen

J. M.

, De Cremer

, & Reinders Folmer

C. P.

(2012). An instrumental perspective on apologizing in bargaining: The importance of forgiveness. Journal of Economic Psychology, 33, 215–222. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joep.2011.10.004.

68.

Leunissen

J. M.

, De Cremer

, Reinders Folmer

C. P.

, & Van Dijke

(2013). The apology mismatch: Asymmetries between victim's need for apologies and perpetrator's willingness to apologize. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 49, 315–324. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2012.12.005.

69.

Leunissen

J. M.

, De Cremer

, Van Dijke

, & Reinders Folmer

C. P.

(2014). Forecasting errors in the averseness of apologizing. Social Justice Research, 27, 322–339. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11211–014–0216–4.

70.

Lindell

M. K.

, & Whitney

D. J.

(2001). Accounting for common method variance in cross–sectional research designs. Journal of Applied Psychology, 86, 114–121. https://doi.org/10.1037//0021–9010.86.1.114.

71.

Maltby

(2010). An interest in fame: Confirming the measurement and empirical conceptualization of fame interest. British Journal of Psychology, 101, 411–432. https://doi.org/10.1348/000712609X466568.

72.

Markon

K. E.

, Krueger

R. F.

, & Watson

(2005). Delineating the structure of normal and abnormal personality: An integrative hierarchical approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 88, 139–157. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022–3514.88.1.139.

73.

Mayer

D. M.

, Thau

, Workman

K. M.

, Van Dijke

, & De Cremer

(2012). Leader mistreatment, employee hostility, and deviant behaviors: Integrating self–uncertainty and thwarted needs perspectives on deviance. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 117, 24–40. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.obhdp.2011.07.003.

74.

McCrae

R. R.

, & Weiss

(2007). Observer ratings of personality. In Robins

R. W.

, Fraley

R. C.

, & Krueger

(Eds.), Handbook of research methods in personality psychology (pp. 259–272). New York, NY: Guildford.

75.

McCullough

M. E.

, Rachal

K. C.

, Sandage

S. J.

, Worthington

E. L.

Jr. , Brown

S. W.

, & Hight

T. L.

(1998). Interpersonal forgiving in close relationships: II. Theoretical elaboration and measurement. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75, 1586–1603. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022–3514.75.6.1586.

76.

Morf

C. C.

, Horvath

, & Torchetti

(2011). Narcissistic self–enhancement: Tales of (successful?) self–portrayal. In Alicke

M. D.

, & Sedikides

(Eds.), Handbook of self–enhancement and self–protection (pp. 399–424). New York, NY: Guilford.

77.

Nelissen

, & Zeelenberg

(2009). When guilt evokes self–punishment: Evidence for the existence of a Dobby Effect. Emotion, 9, 118–122. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0014540.

78.

Nunnally

J. C.

, & Bernstein

I. H.

(1994). Psychometric theory (3rd ed.). New York, NY: McGraw–Hill.

79.

Ohbuchi

K. I.

, Kameda

, & Agarie

(1989). Apology as aggression control: Its role in mediating appraisal of and response to harm. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 56, 219–227. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022–3514.56.2.219.

80.

Okimoto

T. G.

, Wenzel

, & Hedrick

(2013). Refusing to apologize can have psychological benefits (and we issue no mea culpa for this research finding). European Journal of Social Psychology, 43, 22–31. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.1901.

81.

Oppenheimer

D. M.

, Meyvis

, & Davidenko

(2009). Instructional manipulation checks: Detecting satisficing to increase statistical power. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 45, 867–872. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2009.03.009.

82.

Paulhus

D. L.

(1998). Interpersonal and intrapsychic adaptiveness of trait self–enhancement: A mixed blessing? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74, 1197–1208. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022–3514.74.5.1197.

83.

Paulhus

D. L.

(2001). Normal narcissism: Two minimalist accounts. Psychological Inquiry, 12, 228–230.

84.

Paulhus

D. L.

, & Vazire

(2007). The self–report method. In Robins

R. W.

, Fraley

R. C.

, & Krueger

R. F.

(Eds.), Handbook of research methods in personality psychology (pp. 224–239). New York, NY: Guilford.

85.

Paulhus

D. L.

, & Williams

K. M.

(2002). The dark triad of personality: Narcissism, Machiavellianism, and psychopathy. Journal of Research in Personality, 36, 556–563. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0092–6566(02)00505–6.

86.

Podsakoff

P. M.

, MacKenzie

S. M.

, Lee

, & Podsakoff

N. P.

(2003). Common method variance in behavioral research: A critical review of the literature and recommended remedies. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88, 879–903. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021–9010.88.5.879.

87.

Preston

S. D.

, & De Waal

(2002). Empathy: Its ultimate and proximate bases. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 25, 1–20. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0140525X02000018.

88.

Raskin

, & Terry

(1988). A principal–components analysis of the narcissistic personality inventory and further evidence of its construct validity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54, 890–902. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022–3514.54.5.890.

89.

Richard

F. D.

, Bond

C. F.

Jr. , & Stokes–Zoota

J. J.

(2003). One hundred years of social psychology quantitatively described. Review of General Psychology, 7, 331–363. https://doi.org/10.1037/1089–2680.7.4.331.

90.

Rosenberg

(1965). Society and the adolescent self–image. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

91.

Rosenthal

S. A.

, & Pittinsky

T. L.

(2006). Narcissistic leadership. The Leadership Quarterly, 17, 617–633. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2006.10.005.

92.

Rucker

D. D.

, Preacher

K. J.

, Tormala

Z. L.

, & Petty

R. E.

(2011). Mediation analysis in social psychology: Current practices and new recommendations. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 5, 359–371. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1751–9004.2011.00355.x.

93.

Sandage

S. J.

, Jankowski

P. J.

, Bissonette

C. D.

, & Paine

D. R.

(2016). Vulnerable narcissism, forgiveness, humility, and depression: Mediator effects for differentiation of self. Psychoanalytic Psychology, Advance online publication. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1037/pap0000042.

94.

Sandage

S. J.

, & Worthington

E. L.

Jr. (2010). Comparison of two group interventions to promote forgiveness: Empathy as a mediator of change. Journal of Mental Health Counseling, 32, 35–57 https://doi.org/10.17744/mehc.32.1.274536n518571683.

95.

Schniter

, Sheremeta

R. M.

, & Sznycer

(2013). Building and rebuilding trust with promises and apologies. Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, 94, 242–256. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jebo.2012.09.011.

96.

Schoel

, Stahlberg

, & Sedikides

(2015). Psychological insecurity and leadership styles. In Carroll

P. J.

, Arkin

R. M.

, & Wichman

A. L.

(Eds.), The handbook of personal security (pp. 55–73). New York, NY: Psychology Press.

97.

Schönbrodt

F. D.

, & Perugini

(2013). At what sample size do correlations stabilize? Journal of Research in Personality, 47, 609–612. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2013.05.009.

98.

Sedikides

(2012). Self–protection. In Leary

M. R.

, & Tangney

J. P.

(Eds.), Handbook of self and identity (2nd ed., pp. 327–353). New York, NY: Guilford Press.

99.

Sedikides

, & Campbell

W. K.

(2017). Narcissistic force meets systemic resistance: The energy clash model. Perspectives on Psychological Science, Advance online publication. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691617692105.

100.

Sedikides

, Campbell

W. K.

, Reeder

, Elliot

A. J.

, & Gregg

A. P.

(2002). Do others bring out the worst in narcissists? The “others exist for me” illusion. In Kashima

, Foddy

, & Platow

(Eds.), Self and identity: Personal, social, and symbolic (pp. 103–123). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

101.

Sedikides

, & Gregg

A. P.

(2008). Self–enhancement: Food for thought. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 3, 102–116. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745–6916.2008.00068.x.

102.

Sedikides

, Hoorens

, & Dufner

(2015). Self–enhancing self–presentation: Interpersonal, relational, and organizational implications. In Guay

, McInerney

D. M.

, Craven

, & Marsh

H. W.

(Eds.), Self–concept, motivation and identity: Underpinning success with research and practice (pp. 29–55), International Advances in Self Research 5. Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing.

103.

Sedikides

, Rudich

E. A.

, Gregg

A. P.

, Kumashiro

, & Rusbult

(2004). Are normal narcissists psychologically healthy? Self–esteem matters. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 87, 400–416. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022–3514.87.3.400.

104.

Shnabel

, & Nadler

(2008). A needs–based model of reconciliation: Satisfying the differential emotional needs of victims and perpetrators as a key to promoting reconciliation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 94, 116–132. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022–3514.94.1.116.

105.

SimanTov–Nachlieli

, & Shnabel

(2014). Feeling both victim and perpetrator investigating duality within the needs–based model. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 40, 301–314. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167213510746.

106.

Spencer

S. J.

, Zanna

, & Fong

G. T.

(2005). Establishing a causal chain: Why experiments are often more effective than mediational analyses in examining psychological processes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 89, 845–851. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022–3514.89.6.845.

107.

Strayer

(1987). Affective and cognitive perspectives on empathy. In Eisenberg

, & Strayer

(Eds.), Empathy and its development (pp. 218–244). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.

108.

Tangney

J. P.

, & Dearing

R. L.

(2003). Shame and guilt. New York, NY: Guilford Press.

109.

Tangney

J. P.

, Miller

R. S.

, Flicker

, & Barlow

D. H.

(1996). Are shame, guilt, and embarrassment distinct emotions? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70, 1256–1269. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022–3514.70.6.1256.

110.

Tavuchis

(1991). Mea culpa: A sociology of apology and reconciliation. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.

111.

Thomaes

, Brummelman

, & Sedikides

(in press). Narcissism: A social–developmental perspective. In Zeigler–Hill

, & Shackelford

(Eds.), The SAGE handbook of personality and individual differences. New York, NY: Sage.

112.

Tucker

, Turner

, Barling

, Reid

E. M.

, & Elving

(2006). Apologies and transformational leadership. Journal of Business Ethics, 63, 195–207. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551–005–3571–0.

113.

Uchronski

, Abele

A. E.

, & Bruckmüller

(2012). Empathic perspective taking and the situational malleability of the communal self–concept. Self and Identity, 12, 238–258. https://doi.org/10.1080/15298868.2012.655896.

114.

Van Dijk

, & De Cremer

(2006). Tacit coordination and social dilemmas: On the importance of self–interest and fairness. In De Cremer

, Zeelenberg

, & Keith Murnighan

(Eds.), Social psychology and economics (pp. 141–154). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum Publishers.

115.

Vonk

, Zeigler–Hill

, Mayhew

, & Mercer

(2013). Mirror, mirror on the wall, which form of narcissist knows self and others best of all? Personality and Individual Differences, 54, 396–401. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2012.10.010.

116.

Wai

, & Tiliopoulos

(2012). The affective and cognitive empathic nature of the dark triad of personality. Personality and Individual Differences, 52, 794–799. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2012.01.008.

117.

Wenzel

, Okimoto

T. G.

, Feather

N. T.

, & Platow

M. J.

(2008). Retributive and restorative justice. Law and Human Behavior, 32, 375–389. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10979–007–9116–6.

118.

Wohl

M. J.

, Branscombe

N. R.

, & Klar

(2006). Collective guilt: Emotional reactions when one's group has done wrong or been wronged. European Review of Social Psychology, 17, 1–37. https://doi.org/10.1080/10463280600574815.

119.

Wurst

S. N.

, Gerlach

T. M.

, Dufner

, Rauthmann

J. F.

, Grosz

M. P.

, Küfner

A. C. P.

, Denissen

J. J. A.

, et al. (2017). Narcissism and romantic relationships: The differential impact of narcissistic admiration and rivalry. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 112, 280–306. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspp0000113.

120.

Ybarra

, Chan

, Park

, Burnstein

, Monin

, & Stanik

(2008). Life's recurring challenges and the fundamental dimensions: An integration and its implications for cultural differences and similarities. European Journal of Social Psychology, 38, 1083–1092. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.559.

Supplementary Material

Please find the following supplemental material available below.

For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.

For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.

0.00 MB

0.09 MB

0.03 MB