Assessing Personality–Situation Interplay in Personnel Selection: Toward More Integration into Personality Research

Abstract

Over the years, the personnel selection field has developed methods to assess trait expression in particular situations, but these approaches have evolved mostly outside the field of personality psychology. In this article, I review available personnel selection evidence regarding two such approaches: (i) situational judgement tests that present short scenarios and ask job candidates how they would handle the situations and (ii) assessment centre exercises requiring candidates to display behaviour in specified interactive situations. I describe these approaches and discuss their relations with personality research. I posit that adapting these approaches to personality research creates methodological diversity to address key research themes related to within–person variability, trait–behaviour links, personality disorders, and personality expression and perception. Copyright © 2017 European Association of Personality Psychology

Get full access to this article

View all access options for this article.

References

Allik

, de Vries

R. E.

, & Realo

(2016). Why are moderators of self–other agreement difficult to establish? Journal of Research in Personality, 63, 72–83.

Allport

G. W.

(1951). Personality—A psychological interpretation. London: Constable.

Arthur

Jr. , Day

E. A.

, McNelly

T. L.

, & Edens

P. S.

(2003). A meta–analysis of the criterion–related validity of assessment center dimensions. Personnel Psychology, 56, 125–153.

Asendorpf

J. B.

, & Wilpers

(1998). Personality effects on social relationships. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74, 1531–1544.

Back

M. D.

, Schmukle

S. C.

, & Egloff

(2009). Predicting actual behavior from the explicit and implicit self–concept of personality. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 97, 533–548.

Back

M. D.

, & Nestler

(2016). Accuracy of judging personality. In: In

J. A.

Hall

, Mast

Schmid

, & West

T. V.

(Eds.) The social psychology of perceiving others accurately (pp. 98–124). Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press.

Back

M. D.

, & Vazire

(2015). The social consequences of personality: Six suggestions for future research. European Journal of Personality, 29, 296–307.

Back

M. D.

, Baumert

, Denissen

J. J. A.

, Hartung

F.–M.

, Penke

, Schmukle

S. C.

, Schönbrodt

F. D.

, … Wrzus

(2011). PERSOC: A unified framework for understanding the dynamic interplay of personality and social relationships. European Journal of Personality, 25, 90–107.

Baird

B. M.

, Le

, & Lucas

R. E.

(2006). On the nature of intraindividual personality variability: Reliability, validity, and associations with well–being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 90, 512–527.

10.

Bangerter

, Roulin

, & König

C. J.

(2012). Personnel selection as a signaling game. Journal of Applied Psychology, 97, 719–773.

11.

Barrick

M. R.

, & Mount

M. K.

(1991). The big 5 personality dimensions and job–performance—A meta analysis. Personnel Psychology, 44, 1–26.

12.

Bergman

M. E.

, Drasgow

, Donovan

M. A.

, Henning

J. B.

, & Juraska

S. E.

(2006). Scoring situational judgment tests: Once you get the data, your troubles begin. International Journal of Selection and Assessment, 14, 223–235.

13.

Bledow

, & Frese

(2009). A situational judgment test of personal initiative: Towards understanding construct based situational judgment tests. Personnel Psychology, 62, 229–258.

14.

Bleidorn

, & Ködding

(2013). The divided self and psychological (mal)adjustment—A meta–analytic review. Journal of Research in Personality, 47, 547–552.

15.

Block

, & Block

J. H.

(1981). Studying situational dimensions: A grand perspective and some limited empiricism. In Magnussen

(Ed.), Toward a psychology of situations: An interactionist perspective (pp. 85–102). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

16.

Borkenau

, Mauer

, Riemann

, Spinath

F. M.

, & Angleitner

(2004). Thin slices of behavior as cues of personality and intelligence. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 86, 599–614.

17.

Bowler

M. C.

, & Woehr

D. J.

(2006). A meta–analytic evaluation of the impact of dimension and exercise factors on assessment center ratings. Journal of Applied Psychology, 91, 1114–1124.

18.

Brunswik

(1952). The conceptual framework of psychology. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

19.

Campion

M. C.

, & Ployhart

R. E.

(2013). Assessing personality with situational judgment measures: Interactionist psychology operationalized. In Christiansen

N. D.

, & Tett

R. P.

(Eds.), Handbook of personality at work (pp. 439–456). New York, NY: Routledge.

20.

Christian

M. S.

, Edwards

B. D.

, & Bradley

J. C.

(2010). Situational judgement tests: Constructs assessed and a meta–analysis of their criterion–related validities. Personnel Psychology, 63, 83–117.

21.

Christiansen

N. D.

, & Tett

R. P.

(2013). Handbook of personality at work. New York, NY: Routledge.

22.

Christiansen

N. D.

, Wolcott–Burnam

, Janovics

J. E.

, Burns

G. N.

, & Quirk

S. W.

(2005). The good judge revisited: Individual differences in the accuracy of personality judgments. Human Performance, 18, 123–149.

23.

Christiansen

, Hoffman

B. J.

, Lievens

, & Speer

(2013). Assessment centers and the measurement of personality. In Christiansen

, & Tett

(Eds.), Handbook of personality at work (pp. 477–497). New York (NY): Routledge.

24.

Clifton

(2014). Variability in personality expression across contexts: A social network approach. Journal of Personality, 82, 103–115.

25.

Connelly

B. S.

, & Ones

D. S.

(2010). An other perspective on personality: Meta–analytic integration of observers’ accuracy and predictive validity. Psychological Bulletin, 136, 1092–1122.

26.

Cucina

J. M.

, Chihwei

, Busciglio

H. H.

, Harris Thomas

, & Thompson Peyton

(2015). Video–based testing : A high–fidelity job simulation that demonstrates reliability, validity, and utility. International Journal of Selection and Assessment, 23, 197–209.

27.

Dalal

R. S.

, Meyer

R. D.

, Bradshaw

R. P.

, Green

J. P.

, Kelly

E. D.

, & Zhu

(2015). Personality strength and situational influences on behavior: A conceptual review and research agenda. Journal of Management, 41, 261–287.

28.

De Kock

, Lievens

, & Born

(2015). An in–depth look at dispositional reasoning and interviewer accuracy. Human Performance, 28, 199–221.

29.

Dunlop

W. L.

(2015). Contextualized personality, beyond traits. European Journal of Personality, 29, 310–325.

30.

Ebner–Priemer

U. W.

, Eid

, Kleindienst

, Stabenow

, & Trull

T. J.

(2009). Analytic strategies for understanding affective (in)stability and other dynamic processes in psychopathology. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 118, 195–202.

31.

Erickson

T. E.

, Newman

M. G.

, & Pincus

A. L.

(2009). Predicting unpredictability: Do measures of interpersonal rigidity/flexibility and distress predict intraindividual variability in social perceptions and behavior? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 97, 893–912.

32.

Fleeson

(2001). Toward a structure– and process–integrated view of personality: Traits as density distributions of states. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 80, 1011–1027.

33.

Fleeson

, & Gallagher

(2009). The implications of Big Five standing for the distribution of trait manifestation in behavior: Fifteen experience–sampling studies and a meta–analysis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 97, 1097–1114.

34.

Fleeson

, & Jayawickreme

(2015). Whole trait theory. Journal of Research in Personality, 56, 82–92.

35.

Fleeson

, & Law

M. K.

(2015). Trait manifestations as density distributions: The role of actors, situations, and observers in explaining stability and variability. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 109, 1090–1104.

36.

Funder

D. C.

(1999). Personality judgment: A realistic approach to person perception. San Diego: Academic Press.

37.

Funder

D. C.

, Furr

R. M.

, & Colvin

C. R.

(2000). The riverside behavioral Q–sort: A tool for the description of social behavior. Journal of Personality, 68, 451–489.

38.

Furnham

, & Jaspars

(1983). Interactionism in psychology: A critical analysis of the situation–response inventories. Personality and Individual Differences, 4, 627–644.

39.

Furr

R. M.

(2009). Personality psychology as a truly behavioral science. European Journal of Personality, 23, 369–401.

40.

Gatewood

, Field

H. S.

, & Barrick

(2015). Human resource selection (8th ed.). Boston: Cengage Learning.

41.

Geukes

, Nestler

, Hutteman

, Küfner

A. C. P.

, & Back

M. D.

(in press). Trait personality and state variability: Predicting individual differences in within– and cross–context fluctuations in affect, self–evaluations, and behavior in everyday life. Journal of Research in Personality.

42.

Gibbons

A. M.

, & Rupp

D. E.

(2009). Dimension consistency as an individual difference: A new (old) perspective on the assessment center construct validity debate. Journal of Management, 35, 1154–1180.

43.

Giddens

(1991). Modernity and self–identity: Self and society in the late modern age. Cambridge, UK: Polity Press.

44.

Goffman

(1959). The presentation of self in everyday life. New York: Anchor.

45.

Gosling

S. D.

, John

O. P.

, Craik

K. H.

, & Robins

R. W.

(1998). Do people know how they behave? Self–reported act frequencies compared with on–line codings by observers. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74, 1337–1349.

46.

Haselton

M. G.

, & Funder

D. C.

(2006). The evolution of accuracy and bias in social judgment. In Schaller

, Simpson

J. A.

, & Kenrick

D. T.

(Eds.), Evolution and social psychology (pp. 15–38). New York, NY: Psychology Press.

47.

Hausknecht

J. P.

, Day

D. V.

, & Thomas

S. C.

(2004). Applicant reactions to selection procedures: An updated model and meta–analysis. Personnel Psychology, 57, 639–683.

48.

Herde

C.N.

, & Lievens

(2016, April). The added value of speed assessment for assessing leadership: In. P. V. Ingold, & B. J. Hoffman (Chair), AC, Quo Vadis? Novel assessment center design and validation strategies. Symposium conducted at the Annual Conference of the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology, Anaheim, CA, USA.

49.

Hirschmüller

, Egloff

, Schmukle

S. C.

, Nestler

, & Back

M. D.

(2015). Accurate judgments of neuroticism at zero acquaintance: A question of relevance. Journal of Personality, 83, 221–228.

50.

Hoffman

B. J.

, Kennedy

C. L.

, LoPilato

A. C.

, Monahan

E. L.

, & Lance

C. E.

(2015). A review of the content, criterion–related, and construct–related validity of assessment center exercises. Journal of Applied Psychology, 100, 1143–1168.

51.

Hofstee

W. K. B.

(1994). Who should own the definition of personality? European Journal of Personality, 8, 149–162.

52.

Hogan

, & Roberts

B. W.

(2000). A socio analytic perspective on person environment interaction. In Walsh

W. B.

, Craik

K. H.

, & Price

R. H.

(Eds.), Person–environment psychology: New directions and perspectives (pp. 1–23). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

53.

Hogan

, & Shelton

(1998). A socioanalytic perspective on job performance. Human Performance, 11, 129–144.

54.

Huang

J. L.

, Ryan

A. M.

, Zabel

K. L.

, & Palmer

(2014). Personality and adaptive performance at work: A meta–analytic investigation. Journal of Applied Psychology, 99, 162–179.

55.

Human

L. J.

, & Biesanz

J. C.

(2013). Targeting the good target: An integrative review of the characteristics and consequences of being accurately perceived. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 17, 248–272.

56.

Hurtz

G. M.

, & Donovan

J. J.

(2000). Personality and job performance: The Big Five revisited. Journal of Applied Psychology, 85, 869–879.

57.

Ickes

, Snyder

, & Garcia

(1997). Personality influences on the choice of situations. In Hogan

, & Johnson

J. A.

(Eds.), Handbook of personality psychology (pp. 165–195). San Diego, CA: Academic Press, Inc.

58.

James

L. R.

(1998). Measurement of personality via conditional reasoning. Organizational Research Methods, 1, 131–163.

59.

Johnson

(2015). Editorial. European Journal of Personality, 29, 309.

60.

Judge

T. A.

, & Zapata

C. P.

(2015). The person–situation debate revisited: Effect of situation strength and trait activation on the validity of the Big Five traits in predicting job performance. Academy of Management Journal, 58, 1–31.

61.

Judge

T. A.

, Simon

L. S.

, Hurst

, & Kelley

(2014). What I experienced yesterday is who I am today: Relationship of work motivations and behaviors to within–individual variation in the five–factor model of personality. Journal of Applied Psychology, 99, 199–221.

62.

Kanning

U. P.

, Grewe

, Hollenberg

, & Hadouch

(2006). From the subjects’ point of view: Reactions to different types of situational judgment items. European Journal of Psychological Assessment, 22, 168–176.

63.

Kenny

D. A.

(2004). PERSON: A general model of interpersonal perception. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 8, 265–280.

64.

Kirschbaum

, Pirke

K. M.

, & Hellhammer

D. H.

(1993). The ‘Trier Social Stress Test’—A tool for investigating psychobiological stress responses in a laboratory setting. Neuropsychobiology, 28, 76–81.

65.

Krueger

R. F.

, Derringer

, Markon

K. E.

, Watson

, & Skodol

A. E.

(2012). Initial construction of a maladaptive personality trait model and inventory for DSM–5. Psychological Medicine, 42, 1879–1890.

66.

Krumm

, Lievens

, Hüffmeier

, Lipnevich

A. A.

, Bendels

, & Hertel

(2015). How “situational” is judgment in situational judgment tests? Journal of Applied Psychology, 100, 399–416.

67.

Labrador

J. R.

, Christiansen

N. D.

, & Burns

G. N.

(2006, April). Measuring personality using situational judgment tests. Paper presented at the 21st annual conference of the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology, Dallas, TX.

68.

Leckelt

, Küfner

A. C. P.

, Nestler

, & Back

M. D.

(2015). Behavioral processes underlying the decline of narcissists’ popularity over time. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 109, 856–871.

69.

Leikas

, Lönnqvist

J.–E.

, & Verkasalo

(2012). Persons, situations, and behaviors: Consistency and variability of different behaviors in four interpersonal situations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 103, 1007–1022.

70.

Letzring

T. D.

(2008). The good judge of personality: Characteristics, behaviors, and observer accuracy. Journal of Research in Personality, 42, 914–932.

71.

Levy

D. A.

, Collins

B. E.

, & Nail

P. R.

(1998). A new model of interpersonal influence characteristics. Journal of Social Behavior & Personality, 13, 715–733.

72.

Lievens

, & Motowidlo

S. J.

(2015). Situational judgment tests: From measures of situational judgment to measures of general domain knowledge. Industrial and Organizational Psychology – Perspectives on Science and Practice, 9, 3–22.

73.

Lievens

, & Patterson

(2011). The validity and incremental validity of knowledge tests, low–fidelity simulations, and high–fidelity simulations for predicting job performance in advanced–level high–stakes selection. Journal of Applied Psychology, 96, 927–940.

74.

Lievens

, & Sackett

(2012). The validity of interpersonal skills assessment via situational judgment tests for predicting academic success and job performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 97, 460–468.

75.

Lievens

, & Sackett

P. R.

(2017). The effects of predictor method factors on selection outcomes: A modular approach to personnel selection procedures. Journal of Applied Psychology, 102, 43–66.

76.

Lievens

, Chasteen

C. S.

, Day

E. A.

, & Christiansen

N. D.

(2006). Large–scale investigation of the role of trait activation theory for understanding assessment center convergent and discriminant validity. Journal of Applied Psychology, 91, 247–258.

77.

Lievens

, De Corte

, & Schollaert

(2008). A closer look at the frame–of–reference effect in personality scale scores and validity. Journal of Applied Psychology, 93, 268–279.

78.

Lievens

, De Corte

, & Westerveld

(2015a). Understanding the building blocks of selection procedures: Effects of response fidelity on performance and validity. Journal of Management, 41, 1604–1627.

79.

Lievens

, De Fruyt

, & Van Dam

(2001). Assessors’ use of personality traits in descriptions of assessment centre candidates: A five–factor model perspective. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 74, 623–636.

80.

Lievens

, Lang

, Vandevijver

, Corstjens

, De Fruyt

, & Bledow

(in press). A closer look at the assessment and predictive power of people's intra–individual variability across situations. Journal of Applied Psychology.

81.

Lievens

, Schollaert

, & Keen

(2015b). The interplay of elicitation and evaluation of trait–expressive behavior: Evidence in assessment center exercises. Journal of Applied Psychology, 100, 1169–1188.

82.

Lievens

, Tett

R. P.

, & Schleicher

D. J.

(2009). Assessment centers at the crossroads: Toward a reconceptualization of assessment center exercises. In Martocchio

J. J.

, & Liao

(Eds.), Research in personnel and human resources management (pp. 99–152). Bingley: JAI Press.

83.

MacCann

, & Roberts

R. D.

(2008). New paradigms for assessing emotional intelligence: Theory and data. Emotion, 8, 540–551.

84.

McCarthy

J. M.

, Van Iddekinge

C. H.

, Lievens

, Kung

M. C.

, Sinar

E. F.

, & Campion

M. A.

(2013). Do candidate reactions relate to job performance or affect criterion related validity? A multistudy investigation of relations among reactions, selection test scores, and job performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 98, 701–719.

85.

McCrae

R. R.

, & Costa

P. T.

(1996). Toward a new generation of personality theories: Theoretical contexts for the five–factor model. In Wiggins

J. S.

(Ed.), The five–factor model of personality (pp. 51–87). New York: Guilford Press.

86.

McDaniel

M. A.

, Hartman

N. S.

, Whetzel

D. L.

, & Grubb

W. L.

(2007). Situational judgment tests, response instructions, and validity: A meta–analysis. Personnel Psychology, 60, 63–91.

87.

McDaniel

M. A.

, Morgeson

F. P.

, Finnegan

E. B.

, Campion

M. A.

, & Braverman

E. P.

(2001). Predicting job performance using situational judgment tests: A clarification of the literature. Journal of Applied Psychology, 86, 730–740.

88.

Mehl

M. R.

, Gosling

S. D.

, & Pennebaker

J. W.

(2006). Personality in its natural habitat: Manifestations and implicit folk theories of personality in daily life. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 90, 862–877.

89.

Meriac

J. P.

, Hoffman

B. J.

, Woehr

D. J.

, & Fleisher

M. S.

(2008). Further evidence for the validity of assessment center dimensions: A meta–analysis of the incremental criterion–related validity of dimension ratings. Journal of Applied Psychology, 93, 1042–1052.

90.

Meyer

R. D.

, Dalal

R. S.

, & Hermida

(2010). A review and synthesis of situational strength in the organizational sciences. Journal of Management, 36, 121–140.

91.

Mischel

(1973). Toward a cognitive social learning reconceptualization of personality. Psychological Review, 80, 252–283.

92.

Mischel

(2009). From personality and assessment (1968) to personality science (2009). Journal of Research in Personality, 43, 282–290.

93.

Mischel

, & Shoda

(1995). A cognitive–affective system–theory of personality: Reconceptualizing situations, dispositions, dynamics, and invariance in personality structure. Psychological Review, 102, 246–268.

94.

Moskowitz

D. S.

, & Zuroff

D. C.

(2004). Flux, pulse, and spin: Dynamic additions to the personality lexicon. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 86, 880–893.

95.

Motowidlo

S. J.

, & Beier

M. E.

(2010). Differentiating specific job knowledge from implicit trait policies in procedural knowledge measured by a SJT. Journal of Applied Psychology, 95, 321–333.

96.

Motowidlo

S. J.

, Hooper

A. C.

, & Jackson

H. L.

(2006a). Implicit policies about relations between personality traits and behavioral effectiveness in situational judgment items. Journal of Applied Psychology, 91, 749–761.

97.

Motowidlo

S. J.

, Hooper

A. C.

, & Jackson

H. L.

(2006b). A theoretical basis for situational judgment tests. In Weekley

J. A.

, & Ployhart

R. E.

(Eds.), Situational judgment tests: Theory, measurement, and application (pp. 57–82). New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum.

98.

Mueller–Hanson

, Heggestad

E. D.

, & Thornton

G. C.

(2003). Faking and selection: Considering the use of personality from select–in and select–out perspectives. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88, 348–355.

99.

Murphy

N. A.

, & Hall

J. A.

(2011). Intelligence and interpersonal sensitivity: A meta–analysis. Intelligence, 39, 54–63.

100.

Murray

(1938). Explorations in personality. New York: Oxford University Press.

101.

Mussel

, Gatzka

, & Hewig

(2016). Situational judgment tests as an alternative measure for personality assessment. European Journal of Psychological Assessment, Online Publication, August 3. http://dx.doi.org/10.1027/1015-5759/a000346

102.

Nestler

, Egloff

, Küfner

A. C. P.

, & Back

M. D.

(2012). An integrative lens model approach to bias and accuracy in human inferences: Hindsight effects and knowledge updating in personality judgments. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 103, 698–717.

103.

I. S.

, Wang

, & Mount

M. K.

(2011). Validity of observer ratings of the five–factor model of personality traits: A meta–analysis. Journal of Applied Psychology, 96, 762–773.

104.

Oliver

, Hausdorf

, Lievens

, & Conlon

(2016). Interpersonal dynamics in assessment center exercises: Effects of role player portrayed disposition. Journal of Management, 42, 1992–2017.

105.

Olson–Buchanan

J. B.

, Drasgow

, Moberg

P. J.

, Mead

A. D.

, Keenan

P. A.

, & Donovan

(1998). Conflict resolution skills assessment: A model–based, multi– media approach. Personnel Psychology, 51, 1–24.

106.

Parrigon

, Sang

S. E.

, Tay

, & Wang

(2017). CAPTION–ing the situation: A lexically–derived taxonomy of psychological situation characteristics. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 112, 642–681.

107.

Pulakos

E. D.

, Schmitt

, Whitney

, & Smith

(1996). Individual differences in interviewer ratings: The impact of standardization, consensus discussion, and sampling error on the validity of a structured interview. Personnel Psychology, 49, 85–102.

108.

Ragsdale

J. M.

, Rahael

J. A.

, Christiansen

N. D.

, Frost

, & Burns

(2013). Using content analysis in the assessment of personality. In Christansen

N. D.

, & Tett

(Eds.), Handbook of personality at work (pp. 498–522). New York (NY): Routledge.

109.

Rauthmann

J. F.

, Gallardo–Pujol

, Guillaume

E. M.

, Todd

, Nave

C. S.

, Sherman

R. A.

, … Funder

D. C.

(2014). The situational eight DIAMONDS: A taxonomy of major dimensions of situation characteristics. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 107, 677–718.

110.

Rauthmann

J. F.

, Sherman

R. A.

, Nave

C. S.

, & Funder

D. C.

(2015). Personality–driven situation experience, contact, and construal: How people's personality traits predict characteristics of their situations in daily life. Journal of Research in Personality, 55, 98–111.

111.

Roberts

B. W.

(2007). Contextualizing personality psychology. Journal of Personality, 75, 1071–1082.

112.

Robins

R. W.

, & Beer

J. S.

(2001). Positive illusions about the self: Short–term benefits and long–term costs. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 80, 340–352.

113.

Roch

S. G.

, Woehr

D. J.

, Mishra

, & Kieszczynska

(2012). Rater training revisited: An updated meta–analytic review of frame–of–reference training. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 85, 370–395.

114.

Rockstuhl

, Ang

, Ng

K. Y.

, Lievens

, & Van Dyne

(2015). Putting judging situations into situational judgment tests: Evidence from intercultural multimedia SJTs. Journal of Applied Psychology, 100, 464–480.

115.

Sackett

P. R.

, & Lievens

(2008). Personnel selection. Annual Review of Psychology, 59, 419–450.

116.

Sackett

P. R.

, Lievens

, Van Iddekinge

, & Kuncel

(2017). Individual differences and their measurement: A review of 100 years of research. Journal of Applied Psychology., 102, 254–273.

117.

Schlenker

B. R.

, & Leary

M. R.

(1982). Social anxiety and self–presentation: A conceptualization model. Psychological Bulletin, 92, 641–669.

118.

Schollaert

, & Lievens

(2012). Building situational stimuli in assessment center exercises: Do specific exercise instructions and role–player prompts increase the observability of behavior. Human Performance, 25, 255–271.

119.

Shaffer

J. A.

, & Postlethwaite

B. E.

(2012). A matter of context: A meta–analytic investigation of the relative validity of contextualized and noncontextualized personality measures. Personnel Psychology, 65, 445–494.

120.

Sherman

R. A.

, Nave

C. S.

, & Funder

D. C.

(2010). Situational similarity and personality predict behavioral consistency. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 99, 330–343.

121.

Sherman

R. A.

, Rauthmann

J. F.

, Brown

N. A.

, Serfass

D. S.

, & Jones

A. B.

(2015). The independent effects of personality and situations on real–time expressions of behavior and emotion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 109, 872–888.

122.

Simms

L. J.

, Goldberg

L. R.

, Roberts

J. E.

, Watson

, Welte

, & Rotterman

J. H.

(2011). Computerized adaptive assessment of personality disorder: Introducing the CAT–PD project. Journal of Personality Assessment, 93, 380–389.

123.

Slatcher

R. B.

, & Vazire

(2009). Effects of global and contextualized personality on relationship satisfaction. Journal of Research in Personality, 43, 624–633.

124.

Snyder

(1974). Self–monitoring of expressive behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 30, 526–537.

125.

Tett

R. P.

, & Burnett

D. D.

(2003). A personality trait–based interactionist model of job performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88, 500–517.

126.

Tett

R. P.

, & Guterman

H. A.

(2000). Situation trait relevance, trait expression, and cross–situational consistency: Testing a principle of trait activation. Journal of Research in Personality, 34, 397–423.

127.

Thornton

G. C.

, & Rupp

D. E.

(2006). Assessment centers in human resource management: Strategies for prediction, diagnosis, and development. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

128.

Thornton

G. C.

III , & Cleveland

J. N.

(1990). Developing managerial talent through simulation. American Psychologist, 45, 190–199.

129.

Trope

(1986). Identification and inferential processes in dispositional attribution. Psychological Review, 93, 239–257.

130.

Trull

T. J.

, Solhan

M. B.

, Tragesser

S. L.

, Jahng

, Wood

P. K.

, Piasecki

T. M.

, & Watson

(2008). Affective instability: Measuring a core feature of borderline personality disorder with ecological momentary assessment. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 117, 647–661.

131.

Van Iddekinge

C. H.

, Raymark

P. H.

, & Roth

P. L.

(2005). Assessing personality with a structured employment interview: Construct–related validity and susceptibility to response inflation. Journal of Applied Psychology, 90, 536–552.

132.

Van Iddekinge

C. H.

, Sager

C. E.

, Burnfield

J. L.

, & Heffner

T. S.

(2006). The variability of criterion–related validity estimates among interviewers and interview panels. International Journal of Selection and Assessment, 14, 193–205.

133.

Vazire

(2010). Who knows what about a person? The self–other knowledge asymmetry (SOKA) model. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 98, 281–300.

134.

Vazire

, & Mehl

M. R.

(2008). Knowing me, knowing you: The accuracy and unique predictive validity of self–ratings and other–ratings of daily behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 95, 1202–1216.

135.

Wang

, & Grimm

K. J.

(2012). Investigating reliabilities of intraindividual variability indicators. Multivariate Behavior Research, 47, 1–31.

136.

Weekley

J. A.

, Hawkes

, Guenole

, & Ployhart

R. E.

(2015). Low fidelity simulations. Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior, 2, 295–322.

137.

Weis

, & Süss

H.–M.

(2005). Social intelligence—A review and critical discussion of measurement concepts. In Schulze

, & Roberts

R. D.

(Eds.), Emotional intelligence—An international handbook (pp. 203–230). Cambridge: Hogrefe & Huber Publishing.

138.

Woehr

D. J.

, & Huffcutt

A. I.

(1994). Rater training for performance–appraisal: A quantitative review. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 67, 189–205.

139.

Wrzus

, & Mehl

(2015). Lab and/or field? Measuring personality processes and their social consequences. European Journal of Personality, 29, 250–271.