This article aims to classify social identity-based theories of intergroup differentiation in terms of different dimensions of social identity to understand further the motivational bases of intergroup differentiation. For this purpose, I attempt to incorporate three lines of research in social psychology: (a) theories examining intergroup differentiation as a function of social identity, namely social identity theory and SCT; (b) studies suggesting social identity as a multidimensional construct; and (c) motivational theories of intergroup differentiation, namely subjective uncertainty reduction theory, optimal distinctiveness theory, and self-esteem hypothesis. It is suggested that subjective uncertainty reduction theory explains motivational basis of cognitive dimension, that optimal distinctiveness theory explains motivational basis of emotional dimension, and that self-esteem hypothesis explains motivational basis of evaluative dimension of social identity. Finally, the relationships between motivations of intergroup differentiation as a function of different dimensions of social identity are considered.
AbramsD., & HoggM. A. (1988). Comments on the motivational status of self esteem in social identity and intergroup discrimination. European Journal of Social Psychology, 18, 317–334.
2.
AllportG. W. (1954). The nature of prejudice. Cambridge, MA: Addison Wesley.
3.
AshmoreR. D., DeauxK., & McLaughlin-VolpeT. (2004). An organizing framework for collective identity: Articulation and significance of multidimensionality. Psychological Bulletin, 130, 80–114.
4.
BaumeisterR. F., & LearyM. R. (1995). The need to belong: Desire for interpersonal attachments as a fundamental human motivation. Psychological Bulletin, 117, 497–529.
5.
BaumgardnerA. H. (1990). To know one-self is to like oneself. Self certainty and self affect. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 58, 1062–1072.
6.
BergamiM., & BagozziR. P. (2000). Self categorization, affective commitment, and group self esteem as distinct aspects of social identity in the organization. British Journal of Social Psychology, 39, 555–577.
7.
BlanzM., MummendeyA., & OttenS. (1997). Normative evaluations and frequency expectations regarding positive versus negative outcome allocations between groups. European Journal of Social Psychology, 27, 165–176.
8.
BrewerM. B. (1991). The social self: On being the same and different at the same time. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 17, 475–482.
9.
BrewerM. B. (1993). The role of distinctiveness in social identity and group behavior. In HoggM. & AbramsD., Group motivation: Social psychological perspectives (pp. 1–16). New York, NY: Harvester-Wheatsheaf.
10.
BrewerM. B. (1999). The psychology of prejudice: In-group love or out-group hate?Journal of Social Issues, 55, 429–444.
11.
BrewerM. B. (2001). In-group identification and intergroup conflict: When does in-group love become out-group hate? In AshmoreR. D., JussimL., & WilderD., Social identity, intergroup conflict, and conflict resolution (pp. 17–41). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
12.
BrewerM. B., ManziJ., & ShawJ. S. (1993). In-group identification as a function of depersonalization, distinctiveness, and status. Psychological Science, 4, 88–92.
13.
BrewerM. B., & WeberJ. G. (1994). Self evaluation effects of interpersonal versus intergroup social comparison. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 66, 268–275.
14.
CameronJ. E. (2004). A three-factor model of social identity. Self and Identity, 3, 239–262.
15.
CampbellJ. D. (1990). Self esteem and the clarity of the self concept. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 59, 538–549.
16.
DiehleM. (1990). The minimal group paradigm: Theoretical explanations and empirical findings. European Review of Social Psychology, 1, 263–293.
17.
DuckJ., & ForteyK. (2003). The same yet different: The role of distinctiveness in adolescent conformity. Australian Journal of Psychology, 55, 41–41.
18.
EllemersN., KortekaasP., & OuwerkerkJ. A. (1999). Self categorization, commitment to the group and group self esteem as related but distinct aspects of social identity. European Journal of Social Psychology, 29, 371–389.
19.
EssesV. M., JacksonL. M., & ArmstrongT. L. (1998). Intergroup competition and attitudes towards immigrants and immigration: An instrumental model of group conflict. Journal of Social Issues, 54, 699–724.
20.
FeinS., & SpencerS. J. (1997). Prejudice as self-image maintenance: Affirming the self through derogating others. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73, 31–44.
21.
GaertnerL., & SchoplerJ. (1998). Perceived in-group entitativity and intergroup bias: An interconnection of self and others. European Journal of Social Psychology, 28, 963–980.
22.
HinkleS., TaylorL. A., Fox-CardamoneD. L., & CookS. (1989). Intragroup identification and intergroup differentiation: A multi-component approach. British Journal of Social Psychology, 28, 305–317.
23.
HoggM. A. (1993). Group cohesiveness: A critical review and some new directions. European Review of Social Psychology, 4, 85–112.
24.
HoggM. A. (2000). Subjective uncertainty reduction through self categorization: A motivational theory of social identity processes. European Review of Social Psychology, 11, 223–255.
25.
HoggM. A., & AbramsD. (1993). Towards a single process uncertainty-reduction model of social motivation in groups. In Group motivation: Social psychological perspectives (pp. 173–190). London, England: Harvester Wheatsheaf.
26.
HoggM. A., & GrieveP. (1999). Social identity theory and the crisis of confidence in social psychology: A commentary, and some research on uncertainty reduction. Asian Journal of Social Psychology, 2, 79–93.
27.
HoggM. A., & MullinB.-A. (1999). Joining groups to reduce uncertainty: Subjective uncertainty reduction and group identification. In AbramsD. & HoggM. A., Social identity and social cognition (pp. 249–279). Oxford, England: Blackwell.
28.
HoggM. A., ShermanD. K., DierselhuisJ., MaitnerA. T., & MoffittG. (2007). Uncertainty, entitativity, and group identification. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 43, 135–142.
29.
HornseyM. J., & HoggM. A. (1999). Subgroup differentiation as a response to an overly-inclusive group: A test of optimal distinctiveness theory. European Journal of Social Psychology, 29, 543–550.
30.
HornseyM. J., & JettenJ. (2004). The individual within the group: Balancing the need to belong with the need to be different. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 8, 248–264.
31.
HunterJ. A., KypriK., StokellN. M., BoyesM., O'BrienK. S., & McMenaminE. (2004). Social identity, self evaluation and in-group bias: The relative importance of particular domains of self esteem to the in-group. British Journal of Social Psychology, 43, 59–81.
32.
JacksonJ. W. (1999). How variations in social structure affect different types of intergroup bias and different dimensions of social identity in a multi-intergroup setting. Group Processes and Intergroup Relations, 2, 145–173.
33.
JacksonJ. W. (2002). Intergroup attitudes as a function of different dimensions of group identification and perceived intergroup conflict. Self and Identity, 1, 11–33.
34.
JacksonJ. W., & SmithE. R. (1999). Conceptualizing social identity: A new framework and evidence for the impact of different dimension. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 25, 120–135.
35.
JettenJ., SpearsR., & MansteadA. S. (1997). Distinctiveness threat and prototypicality: Combined effects on intergroup discrimination and collective self esteem. European Journal of Social Psychology, 27, 635–657.
36.
JostJ. T., BanajiM. R., & NosekB. A. (2004). A decade of system justification theory: Accumulated evidence of conscious and unconscious bolstering of the status quo. Political Psychology, 25, 881–913.
37.
KobayashiC., & BrownJ. D. (2003). Self esteem and self enhancement in Japan and America. Journal of Cross Cultural Study, 34, 567–580.
38.
LearyM. R., TamborE. S., TerdalS. K., & DownsD. L. (1995). Self esteem as an interpersonal monitor: The sociometer hypothesis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 68, 518–530.
39.
LeonardelliG. J., & BrewerM. B. (2001). Minority and majority discrimination: When and why. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 37, 468–485.
40.
MlickiP., & EllemersN. (1996). Being different or being better? National stereotypes and identifications of Polish and Dutch students. European Journal of Social Psychology, 22, 103–122.
41.
MullinB.-A., & HoggM. A. (1998). Dimensions of subjective uncertainty in social identification and minimal intergroup discrimination. British Journal of Social Psychology, 37, 345–365.
42.
MullinB.-A., & HoggM. A. (1999). Motivations for group membership: The role of subjective importance and uncertainty reduction. Basic & Applied Social Psychology, 21(2), 91–102.
43.
MummendeyA., KlinkA., MielkeR., WenzelM., & BlanzM. (1999). Socio-structural characteristics of intergroup relations and identity management strategies: Results from East Germany. European Journal of Social Psychology, 29, 259–285.
44.
MummendeyA., SimonB., DietzeC., GruenertM., HaegerG., KesslerS., … SchaferhoffS. (1992). Categorization is not enough: Intergroup discrimination in negative outcome allocation. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 28, 125–144.
45.
PickettC. L., BonnerB. L., & ColemanJ. M. (2002). Motivated self-stereotyping: Heightened assimilation and differentiation needs result in increased levels of positive and negative self -stereotyping. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 82, 543–562.
46.
PickettC. L., & BrewerM. B. (2001). Assimilation and differentiation needs as motivational determinants of perceived in-group and out-group homogeneity. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 37, 341–348.
47.
PostmesT., HaslamS. A., & SwaabR. I. (2005). Social influence in small groups: An interactive model of social identity formation. European Review of Social Psychology, 16, 1–42.
48.
ReidS. A., & HoggM. A. (2005). Uncertainty reduction, self enhancement, and in-group identification. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 31, 804–817.
49.
RubinM., & HewstoneM. (1998). Social identity theory's self esteem hypothesis: A review and some suggestions for clarification. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 2, 40–62.
50.
SedikidesC., & StrubeM. J. (1995). The multiply motivated self. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 21, 1330–1335.
51.
ShahJ. Y., KruglanskiA. W., & ThompsonE. P. (1998). Membership has its (epistemic) rewards: Need for closure effects on in-group bias. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75, 383–393.
52.
SherifM. (1966). In common predicament: Social psychology of intergroup conflict and cooperation. New York, NY: Houghton Mifflin.
53.
SolomonS., GreenbergJ., & PyszcsynzskiT. (1991). A terror management theory of social behavior: The psychological functions of self-esteem and cultural worldviews. In ZannaP. M., Advances in experimental social psychology. San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
54.
TajfelH. (1978). Differentiation between social groups: Studies in the social psychology of intergroup relations. London, England: Academic Press.
55.
TajfelH. (1981). Human groups and social categories: Studies in social psychology. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
56.
TajfelH., FlamentC., BilligM. G., & BundyR. P. (1971). Social categorization and intergroup behavior. European Journal of Social Psychology, 1, 149–177.
57.
TajfelH., & TurnerJ. (1979). An integrative theory of conflict. In AustinW. G. & WorchelS., The social psychology of intergroup relations (pp. 33–48). Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole.
58.
TaylorD. M., & MoghaddamF. M. (1994). Theories of intergroup relations: International social psychological perspectives. Westport, CT: Praeger.
59.
TriandisH. C. (1995). Individualism and collectivism. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
60.
TurnerJ. C. (1975). Social comparison and social identity: Some prospects for intergroup behavior. European Journal of Social Psychology, 5, 5–34.
61.
TurnerJ. C. (1985). Social categorization and the self-concept: A social cognitive theory of group behavior. In LawlerE. J., Advances in group processes: Theory and research (Vol. 2). (pp. 77–121). Greenwich, CT: JAI press.
62.
TurnerJ. C. (1999). Some current issues in research on social identity and self categorization theories. In EllemersN., SpearsR., & DoosjeB., Social identity: Context, Commitment, Content. Oxford, England: Blackwell.
63.
TurnerJ. C., HoggM. A., OakesP. J., ReicherS. D., & WetherellM. (1987). Rediscovering the social group. A self categorization theory. Oxford, England: Blackwell.
64.
TurnerJ. C., OakesP. J., HaslamA., & McGartyC. (1994). Self and collective: Cognition and social context. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 20, 454–463.
65.
YukiM. (2003). Intergroup comparison versus intragroup relationships: A cross-cultural examination of social identity theory in North American and East Asian Contexts. Social Psychology Quarterly, 66, 166–183.
