The Fate of the Generalist: Edward L. Walker (1914−1997) as a Case Study

Abstract

Psychology has become a field for specialists. I explore the fate of a generalist who did not fit this image, Edward L. Walker. Walker was president of both a regional society and a division of the American Psychological Association, author of 11 books, counselor to many graduate students, and a mainstay in a top psychology department. He received a Career Research Award from the National Institute of Mental Health. He contributed to the study of learning and motivation, aesthetics, the science of psychiatry, social psychology, and more. Yet, on his death, there appeared no obituaries in the psychology national media. One reason may be the very breadth of his interests.

Keywords

general psychology learning arousal stimulus complexity

Get full access to this article

View all access options for this article.

References

Arkes

H. R.

, & Boykin

A. W.

(1971). Analysis of complexity preference in Head Start and nursery children. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 33, 1131–1137. doi:10.2466/pms.1971.33.3f.1131

Atkinson

J. W.

, & Walker

E. L.

(1956). The affiliation motive and perceptual sensitivity to faces. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 53, 38–41. doi:10.1037/h0043181

Ayres

, Aeschbach

, & Walker

E. L.

(1980). Psychoacoustic and experiential determination of tonal consonance. Journal of Auditory Research, 20, 31–42.

Bardwick

J. M.

(1971). Psychology of women: A study of bio-cultural conflicts. New York, NY: Harper & Row.

Bardwick

J. M.

, Douvan

, Horner

, & Gutmann

(1970). Feminine personality and conflict. Belmont, CA: Books/Cole.

Berlyne

D. E.

(1960). Conflict, arousal and curiosity. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill. doi:10.1037/11164-000

Berlyne

D. E.

(1971). Aesthetics and psychobiology. New York, NY: Appleton-Century-Crofts.

Boothe

B. E.

, Rosenfeld

A. H.

, & Walker

E. L.

(1974). Toward a science of psychiatry: Impact of the research development program of the National Institute of Mental Health. Monterrey, CA: Brooks/Cole.

Boykin

A. W.

, & Arkes

H. R.

(1974). Processing time and complexity preference in preschool children. The Psychological Record, 24, 259–265.

10.

Dember

W. N.

(1982). Analysis of exploratory, manipulatory, and curiosity behaviors. Current Contents: Social & Behavioral Sciences, 49, 16.

11.

Dember

W. N.

, & Earl

R. W.

(1957). Analysis of exploratory, manipulatory, and curiosity behaviors. Psychological Review, 64, 91–96. doi:10.1037/h0046861

12.

Dember

W. N.

, Earl

R. W.

, & Paradise

(1957). Response by rats to differential stimulus capacity. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 50, 514–518. doi:10.1037/h0046780

13.

Dewsbury

D. A.

(1965). Changes in stimulus preference as a function of exposure in an extra-test situation. Psychonomic Science, 2, 175–176.

14.

Dewsbury

D. A.

(1966a). Stimulus-produced changes in the discharge rate of an electric fish and their relation to arousal. The Psychological Record, 16, 495–504.

15.

Dewsbury

D. A.

(1966b). Diurnal fluctuations in the discharge frequency of a gymnotid electric fish. Psychonomic Science, 6, 35–36.

16.

Dewsbury

D. A.

(2006). Monkey farm: A history of the Yerkes Laboratories of Primate Biology, Orange Park, Florida, 1939–1965. Lewisburg, PA: Bucknell University Press.

17.

Dewsbury

D. A.

(2011). John Paul Scott: The study of genetics, development, and social behavior. In Pickren

W. E.

, Dewsbury

D. A.

, & Wertheimer

, a Portraits of pioneers in developmental psychology (pp. 229−248). New York, NY: Psychology Press.

18.

Di Lollo

, & Walker

E. L.

(1964). Speed and basal resistance level (BRL) in a segmented straight alley. The Psychological Record, 14, 499–505.

19.

Domino

E. F.

, Karoly

A. J.

, & Walker

E. L.

(1963). Effects of various drugs on a conditioned avoidance response in dogs resistant to extinction. Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, 141, 92–99.

20.

Gibby

R. G.

, Miller

D. R.

, & Walker

E. L.

(1953). The examiner's influence on the Rorschach protocol. Journal of Consulting Psychology, 17, 425–428. doi:10.1037/h0057403

21.

Glanzer

(1953a). Stimulus satiation: An explanation of spontaneous alternation and related phenomena. Psychological Review, 60, 257–268. doi:10.1037/h0062718

22.

Glanzer

(1953b). The role of stimulus satiation in spontaneous alternation. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 45, 387–393. doi:10.1037/h0059388

23.

Guthrie

E. R.

(1935). The psychology of learning. New York, NY: Harper.

24.

Heyduk

R. G.

(1975). Rated preference for musical compositions as it relates to complexity and exposure frequency. Perception & Psychophysics, 17, 84–90. doi:10.3758/BF03204003

25.

Heyduk

R. G.

, & Bahrick

L. E.

(1977). Complexity, response competition, and preference: Implications for affective consequences of repeated exposure. Motivation and Emotion, 1, 249–259. doi:10.1007/BF00998863

26.

Hilgard

E. R.

, & Walker

E. L.

(1951). Review of Learning theory and personality dynamics. Psychological Bulletin, 48, 438–442. doi:10.1037/h0051017

27.

Hirsch

M. J.

, Horowitz

M. W.

, Walker

E. L.

, & Weymouth

F. W.

(1948). Distance discrimination IV. Effect of aniseikonic lenses on distance discrimination. Archives of Ophthalmology, 39, 333–338. doi:10.1001/archopht.1948.00900020340008

28.

Kaplan

(1963). Rat basal resistance level under stress and nonstress conditions. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 56, 775–777. doi:10.1037/h0042182

29.

Kaplan

, Kaplan

, & Walker

E. L.

(1960). Individual differences in learning as a function of shock level. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 60, 404–407. doi:10.1037/h0044325

30.

Kaplan

, & Hobart

J. L.

(1964). A versatile device for the measurement of skin-resistance in rats and humans. The American Journal of Psychology, 77, 309–310. doi:10.2307/1420144

31.

Kaplan

, & Kaplan

(1962). Skin resistance recording in the unrestrained rat. Science, 138, 1403–1404. doi:10.1126/science.138.3548.1403

32.

Karoly

A. J.

, Walker

E. L.

, & Domino

E. F.

(1964). Differential effects of various drugs on conditioned motor and heart rate responses in dogs resistant to extinction. Archives Internationales de Pharmacodynami et de Therapie, 148, 40–52.

33.

Kellogg

W. N.

, & Walker

E. L.

(1938a). “Ambiguous conditioning,” a phenomenon of bilateral transfer. Journal of Comparative Psychology, 26, 63–78. doi:10.1037/h0060109

34.

Kellogg

W. N.

, & Walker

E. L.

(1938b). An analysis of the bilateral transfer of conditioning in dogs, in terms of the frequency, amplitude, and latency of the responses. Journal of General Psychology, 18, 253–265. doi:10.1080/00221309.1938.9709978

35.

Kivy

P. N.

, Earl

R. W.

, & Walker

E. L.

(1956). Stimulus context and satiation. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 49, 90–92. doi:10.1037/h0040984

36.

Kleinsmith

L. J.

, & Kaplan

(1963). Paired associate learning as a function of arousal and interpolated interval. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 65, 190–193. doi:10.1037/h0040288

37.

Kleinsmith

L. J.

, & Kaplan

(1964). Interaction of arousal and recall interval in nonsense syllable paired-associate learning. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 67, 124–126. doi:10.1037/h0045203

38.

McKeachie

W. J.

, Milholland

J. E.

, Cole

L. E.

, Hunt

, Leeper

, Ray

, … Walker

E. L.

(1961). Undergraduate curricula in psychology: Report of the Michigan conference supported by the National Science Foundation. Glenview, IL: Scott Foresman.

39.

Miller

G. A.

(1956). The magical number seven, plus or minus two: Some limits on our capacity for processing information. Psychological Review, 63, 81–97. doi:10.1037/h0043158

40.

Mortenson

F. J.

(1969). Determinants of electrical discharge rate in Gymnotus carapo. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of Michigan, Ann Arbor.

41.

Samuels

(1959). Reticular mechanisms and behavior. Psychological Bulletin, 56, 1–25. doi:10.1037/h0044488

42.

Turner

J. R.

, & Arkes

H. R.

(1975). Piagetian stage and preferred level of complexity. Psychological Reports, 37, 1035–1040. doi:10.2466/pr0.1975.37.3f.1035

43.

Walker

B. E.

, & Walker

E. L.

(1964). Learning, extinction, and relearning of running and basal skin resistance (BRL) in a segmented straight alley. The Psychological Record, 14, 507–513.

44.

Walker

(1970a). Psychology as a natural and social science. Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole.

45.

Walker

, & Atkinson

J. W.

(1958). The expression of fear-related motivation in thematic apperception as a function of proximity to an atomic explosion. In Atkinson

J. W.

, Motives in fantasy, action, and society: A method of assessment and study (pp. 143–159). Princeton, NJ: D. Van Nostrand.

46.

Walker

E. L.

(1941). The Terman-Miles “M-F” test and the prison classification system. The Pedagogical Seminary and Journal of Genetic Psychology, 59, 27–40.

47.

Walker

E. L.

(1948a). Variability in extinction scores in Skinner-box problems. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 41, 432–437. doi:10.1037/h0062534

48.

Walker

E. L.

(1948b). Factors in vernier acuity and distance discrimination. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Stanford University, Palo Alto, CA.

49.

Walker

E. L.

(1951). Drive specificity and learning: Demonstration of a response tendency acquired under a strong irrelevant drive. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 44, 596–603. doi:10.1037/h0063160

50.

Walker

E. L.

(1956). The duration and course of the reaction decrement and the influence of reward. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 49, 167–176. doi:10.1037/h0048155

51.

Walker

E. L.

(1957). Learning. Annual Review of Psychology, 8, 113–138. doi:10.1146/annurev.ps.08.020157.000553

52.

Walker

E. L.

(1958). Action decrement and its relation to learning. Psychological Review, 65, 129–142. doi:10.1037/h0049177

53.

Walker

E. L.

(1961). Quest for stability and change. PsycCRITIQUES, 6(5), 145–147.

54.

Walker

E. L.

(1963). Utilizing student motivation for mastering content in psychology. In Smith

G. K.

, Critical decisions in higher education (pp. 246–250). Washington, DC: Association for Higher Education.

55.

Walker

E. L.

(1964a). Psychological complexity as a basis for a theory of motivation and choice. Nebraska Symposium on Motivation, 12, 47–97.

56.

Walker

E. L.

(1964b). Matching means and ends in teaching architecture. In Whiffen

, The teaching of architecture (pp. 29–54). Washington, DC: American Institute of Architects.

57.

Walker

E. L.

(1964c). Arousal and the memory trace. In Kimble

D. P.

, The organization of recall: Proceedings of the Second International Conference on Learning, Remembering and Forgetting. New York, NY: New York Academy of Sciences.

58.

Walker

E. L.

(1964d). Comments on Professor Ernest R. Hilgard's paper. Nebraska Symposium on Motivation, 12, 44–46.

59.

Walker

E. L.

(1964e). Comments on Frank A. Logan's paper. Nebraska Symposium on Motivation, 12, 131–134.

60.

Walker

E. L.

(1969a). Reinforcement – “the one ring.” In Tapp

J. T.

, Reinforcement and behavior (pp. 47–62). New York, NY: Academic Press.

61.

Walker

E. L.

(1969b). Experimental psychology and social responsibility. American Psychologist, 24, 862–868. doi:10.1037/h0027984

62.

Walker

E. L.

(1970b). Relevant psychology is a snark. American Psychologist, 25, 1081–1086. doi:10.1037/h0030295

63.

Walker

E. L.

(1970c). Complexity and preference in animals and men. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 169, 619–653. doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.1970.tb27005.x

64.

Walker

E. L.

(1970d). Psychological and psychiatric potpourri. PsycCRITIQUES, 15, 661–663.

65.

Walker

E. L.

(1973). Psychological complexity and preference: A hedgehog theory of behavior. In Berlyne

D. R.

& Madsen

K. B.

Pleasure, reward, preference (pp. 65–97). New York, NY: Academic Press.

66.

Walker

E. L.

(1978). Introduction to D. Berlyne's Curiosity and Learning. Motivation and Emotion, 2, 96.

67.

Walker

E. L.

(1980a). Psychological complexity and preference: A hedgehog theory of behavior. Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole.

68.

Walker

E. L.

(1980b). Berlyne's theoretical contributions to psychology. Motivation and Emotion, 4, 105–111. doi:10.1007/BF00995191

69.

Walker

E. L.

(1981). The quest for the inverted U. In Day

H. I.

, Advances in intrinsic motivation and aesthetics (pp. 39–70). New York, NY: Plenum.

70.

Walker

E. L.

(1982). Hot breads crawdads and other ana. Monterey, CA: Hedgehog Press.

71.

Walker

E. L.

(1984). Shiloh to Vicksburg, Dear Eliza: An eyewitness account in the Civil War letters. Pebble Beach, CA: Hedgehog Press.

72.

Walker

E. L.

(1994). Chaff. Mill Creek, WA: Hedgehog Press.

73.

Walker

E. L.

, Cohen

A. H.

, & Doyle

C. L.

(1964). Skin resistance in relation to stimulus change and estrus in rats. Psychological Record, 14, 25–29.

74.

Walker

E. L.

, Dember

W. N.

, Earl

R. W.

, Fawl

C. L.

, & Karoly

A. J.

(1955). Choice alternation: III. Response intensity vs. response discriminability. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 48, 80–85. doi:10.1037/h0045027

75.

Walker

E. L.

, Dember

W. N.

, Earl

R. W.

, Fliege

S. E.

, & Karoly

A. J.

(1955). Choice alternation: II. Exposure to stimulus or stimulus and place without choice. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 48, 24–28. doi:10.1037/h0040579

76.

Walker

E. L.

, Dember

W. N.

, Earl

R. W.

, & Karoly

A. J.

(1955). Choice alternation: I. Stimulus vs. place response. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 48, 19–23. doi:10.1037/h0047218

77.

Walker

E. L.

, & Heyns

R. W.

(1962). An anatomy for conformity. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

78.

Walker

E. L.

, & Kellogg

W. N.

(1938). Study of the conditioned response in dogs with special reference to the side of the body conditioned. Proceedings of the Indiana Academy of Science, 47, 214–219.

79.

Walker

E. L.

, & Kellogg

W. N.

(1939). Conditioned respiration and the conditioned flexion response. Journal of Comparative Psychology, 27, 393–409. doi:10.1037/h0057660

80.

Walker

E. L.

, Knotter

M. C.

, & DeValois

R. L.

(1950). Drive specificity and learning: The acquisition of a spatial response to food under conditions of water deprivation and food satiation. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 40, 161–168. doi:10.1037/h0059650

81.

Walker

E. L.

, & Motoyoshi

(1962). The effect of amount of reward and distribution of practice on active and inactive memory traces. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 55, 32–36. doi:10.1037/h0040528

82.

Walker

E. L.

, & Paradise

(1958). A positive correlation between action decrement and learning. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 56, 45–47. doi:10.1037/h0041523

83.

Walker

E. L.

, & Sawyer

T. M.

Jr. (1961). The interaction between critical flicker frequency and acoustic stimulation. The Psychological Record, 11, 187–193.

84.

Walker

E. L.

, & Tarte

R. D.

(1963). Memory storage as a function of arousal and time with homogeneous and heterogeneous lists. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 2, 113–119. doi:10.1016/S0022-5371(63)80075-4

85.

Walker

E. L.

, & Veroff

(1956). Changes in the memory-trace for perceived forms with successive reproductions. The American Journal of Psychology, 69, 395–402. doi:10.2307/1419041

86.

Walker

E. L.

, & Walker

B. E.

(1964). Response to stimulus complexity in the rat. The Psychological Record, 14, 489–497.

87.

Weems

L. R.

Jr. , & Walker

E. L.

(1964). Speed and basal resistance level (BRL) in a segmented straight alley as a function of alteration of the stimulus, gentling, and isolation. The Psychological Record, 14, 515–519.

88.

Weiner

, & Walker

E. L.

(1966). Motivational factors in short-term retention. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 71, 190–193. doi:10.1037/h0022848