Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) methods allow a wide variety of noninvasive measurements to be made on living animals and humans. The most extensively developed application of such methods is magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of the brain and other organs, which has already come to the attention of most biomedical scholars, many physicians, and even much of the lay public because of its widespread use in neurological research and medical diagnosis.
References
1.
AckermanJJEwyCSBeckerNNShalwitzRA, (1987) Deuterium nuclear magnetic resonance measurements of blood flow and tissue perfusion employing 2H2O as a freely diffusible tracer. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA84:4099–4102
2.
AtlasS, (ed) (1991) Magnetic Resonance Imaging of Brain and Spine, New York, Raven Press
3.
BandettiniPAWongECHinksRSTikofskyRSHydeJS, (1992) Time course EPI of human brain function during task activation. Magn Reson Med25:390–397
BelliveauJWKennedyDNMcKinstryRCBuchbinderBRWeisskoffRMCohenMSVeveaJMBradyTJRosenBR, (1991) Functional mapping of the human visual cortex by magnetic resonance imaging. Science254:716–719
6.
BlamireAMOgawaSUgurbilKRothmanDMcCarthyGEllermannJMHyderFRattnerZShulmanRG, (1992) Dynamic mapping of the human visual cortex by high-speed magnetic resonance imaging. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA89:11069–11013
7.
BorowskyIWCollinsRC, (1989) Metabolic anatomy of brain: A comparison of regional capillary density, glucose metabolism, and enzyme activities. J Comp Neurol288:401–413
8.
BottomleyPA, (1989) Human in vivo NMR spectroscopy in diagnostic medicine: Clinical tool or research probe. Radiology170: 1–15
ConnellyAJacksonGDFrackowiakRSBelliveauJWVarghaKFGadianDG, (1993) Functional mapping of activated human primary cortex with a clinical MR imaging system. Radiology188: 125–130
11.
ConstableRTMcCarthyGAllisonTAndersonAWGoreJC, (1993) Functional brain imaging at 1.5 T using conventional gradient echo MR imaging techniques. Magn Reson Imag11:451–459
FiatDLigetiLLyonRCRuttnerZPekarJMoonenCTWMcLaughlinAC, (1992) In vivo 17O NMR study of rat brain during 17O2 inhalation. Magn Reson Med24:370–374
14.
FiselCRAckermanJLBuxtonRBGarridoLBelliveauJWRosenBRBradyTJ, (1991) MR contrast due to microscopically heterogeneous magnetic susceptibility: Numerical simulations and applications to cerebral pathology. Magn Reson Med17:336–347
FrahmJBruhnHMerboldtK-DHanickeW, (1992a) Dynamic MR imaging of human brain oxygenation during rest and photic stimulation. J Magn Reson Imag2:501–505
17.
FrahmJGyngellMLHanickeW, (1992b) Rapid scan techniques. In: Magnetic Resonance Imaging, St. Louis, MO, Mosby Yearbook, pp. 165–203
18.
Gaudry-TalarmainYM, (1986) The effect of lactate on acetylcholine release evoked by various stimuli from Torpedo synaptosomes. Eur J Pharmacol129:235–243
19.
GrillVGutniakMBjorkmanOLindqvistMStone-ElanderSSeitzRJBlomqvistGReichardPWidenL, (1990) Cerebral blood flow and substrate utilization in insulin-treated diabetic subjects. Am J Physiol258:E813–E820
20.
GruetterRRothmanDLNovotnyEJShulmanGIPrichardJWShulmanRG, (1992) Detection and assignment of the glucose signal in 1H NMR difference spectra of the human brain. Magn Reson Med27: 183–188
21.
GutniakMBlomqvistGWidenLStone-ElanderSHambergerBGrillV, (1990) D-[U-11C]glucose uptake and metabolism in the brain of insulin-dependent diabetic subjects. Am J Physiol258:E805–E812
22.
HambergLMMacFarlandRTasdemirogluEBoccaliniPHunterGJBelliveauJWMoskowitzMARosenBR, (1993) Measurement of cerebrovascular changes in cats after transient ischemia using dynamic magnetic resonance imaging. Stroke24:444–451
23.
JenkinsBGBelliveauJWRosenBR, (1992) Confirmation of lactate production during photic stimulation. Soc Magn Reson Med Abstr11:2145
24.
KimSGAsheJGeorgopoulosAPMerkleHEllermannJMMenonRSOgawaSUgurbilK, (1993a) Functional imaging of human motor cortex at high magnetic field. J Neurophysiol69:297–302
25.
KimSGAsheJHendrichKEllermannJMMerkleHUgurbilKGeorgopoulosAP, (1993b) Functional magnetic resonance imaging of motor cortex: Hemispheric asymmetry and handedness. Science261:615–617
26.
KwongKKHopkinsALBelliveauJWCheslerDAPorkkaLMMcKinstryRCFinelliDAHunterGJMooreJBBarrRGRosenBR, (1991) Proton NMR imaging of cerebral blood flow using H217O. Magn Reson Med22:154–158
27.
KwongKKBelliveauJWCheslerDAGoldbergIEWeisskoffRMPonceletBPKennedyDNHoppelBECohenMSTurnerRChengH-MBradyTJRosenBR, (1992) Dynamic magnetic resonance imaging of human brain activity during primary sensory stimulation. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA89:5675–5679
28.
Le BihanDTurnerRDouekPPatronasN, (1992) Diffusion MR imaging: Clinical applications. Am J Radiol159:591–599
29.
MarrettSFujitaHKuwabaraHYasuharaYRibieroLMeyerEEvansACGjeddeA, (1992) Stimulus specific increase of oxidative metabolism in visual cortex. Soc Neurosci Abstr18:1394
30.
MasonGFRothmanDLBeharKLShulmanRG, (1992) NMR determination of the TCA cycle rate and alpha-ketoglutarate exchange rate in rat brain. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab12:434–447
31.
McCarthyGBlamireAMRothmanDLGruetterRShulmanRG, (1993) Echo-planar magnetic resonance imaging studies of frontal cortex activation during word generation in humans. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA90:4952–4956
32.
MerboldtKDBruhnHHanickeWMichaelisTFrahmJ, (1992) Decrease of glucose in the human visual cortex during visual stimulation. Magn Reson Med22:159–166
33.
MoseleyMEWendlandMFKucharczykJ, (1991) Magnetic resonance imaging of diffusion and perfusion. Topics Magn Reson Imag3:50–67
34.
OgawaSLeeTMNayakASGlynnP, (1990) Oxygenation-sensitive contrast in magnetic resonance image of rodent brain at high magnetic fields. Magn Reson Med14:68–78
35.
OgawaSTankDWMenonREllermannJMKimS-GMerkleHUgurbilK, (1992) Intrinsic signal changes accompanying sensory stimulation: Functional brain mapping using MRI. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA89:5951–5955
36.
PaulingLCoryellC, (1936) The magnetic properties and structure of hemoglobin, oxyhemoglobin, and carbon monooxy-hemoglobin. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA22:210–216
37.
PekarJLigetiLRuttnerZLyonRCSinnwellTMvan GelderenPFiatDMoonenCTWMcLaughlinAC, (1991) In vivo measurement of cerebral oxygen consumption and blood flow using 17O magnetic resonance imaging. Magn Reson Med21:313–319
38.
PetroffOACPrichardJWOginoTAvisonMJAlgerJRShulmanRG, (1986) Combined 1H and 31P nuclear magnetic resonance studies of bicuculline-induced seizures in vivo. Ann Neurol20: 185–193
39.
PetroffOACNovotnyEJAvisonMJRothmanDLAlgerJROginoTShulmanGIPrichardJW, (1992) Cerebral lactate turnover after electroshock: In vivo measurements by 1H/13C magnetic resonance spectroscopy. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab12:1022–1029
40.
PotchenEJHaackeEMSiebertJEGottschaldA, (eds) (1993) Magnetic Resonance Angiography, St. Louis, MO, Mosby
41.
PrichardJW, (1992) Magnetic resonance spectroscopy of cerebral metabolism in vivo. In: Diseases of the Nervous System: Clinical Neurobiology, 2nd ed., Philadelphia, WB Saunders, pp. 1589–1605
42.
PrichardJWAlgerJRBeharKLPetroffOACShulmanRG, (1983) Cerebral metabolic studies in vivo by 31P NMR. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA80:2748–2751
43.
PrichardJWPetroffOAOginoTShulmanRG, (1987) Cerebral lactate elevation by electroshock: A 1H magnetic resonance study. Ann NY Acad Sci508:54–63
44.
PrichardJRothmanDNovotnyEPetroffOKuwabaraTAvisonMHowsemanAHanstockCShulmanR, (1991) Lactate rise detected by 1H NMR in human visual cortex during physiologic stimulation. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA88:5829–5831
45.
RosenBRBelliveauJWAronenHJKennedyDBuchbinderBRFischmanAGruberMGlasJWeisskoffRMCohenMSBuchbinderBRHochbergFHBradyTJ, (1991) Susceptibility contrast imaging of cerebral blood volume: Human experience. Magn Reson Med22:293–299
46.
RothmanDLBeharKLHetheringtonHPden HollanderJABendallMRPetroffOACShulmanRG, (1985) 1H observed 13C decoupled spectroscopic measurements of lactate and glutamate in the rat brain in vivo. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA82:1633–1637
47.
RothmanDLNovotnyEJShulmanGIHowsemanAMPetroffOACMasonGNixonTHanstockCCPrichardJWShulmanRG, (1992) 1H-[13C] NMR measurements of [4-13C]glutamate turnover in human brain. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA89:9603–9606
48.
Sappey-MarineirDCalabreseGFeinGHuggJBigginsCWeinerM, (1992) Effect of photic stimulation on human visual cortex lactate and phosphates using 1H and 31P magnetic resonance spectroscopy. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab12:584–592
49.
SchnallMDYoshizakiKChanceBLeighJS, (1988) Triple nuclear NMR studies of cerebral metabolism during generalized seizure. Magn Reson Med6:15–23
50.
SinghM, (1992) Toward proton MR spectroscopic imaging of stimulated brain function. IEEE Trans Nucl Sci39:1161–1164
51.
StarkDDBradleyWG, (1992) Magnetic Resonance Imaging, St. Louis, MO, Mosby Yearbook
52.
StehlingMKTurnerRMansfieldP, (1991) Echo-planar imaging: Magnetic resonance imaging in a fraction of a second (review). Science254:43–50
53.
ThulbornKRWatertonJCMatthewsPMRaddaGK, (1982) Oxygenation dependence of the transverse relaxation time of water protons in whole blood at high field. Biochim Biophys Acta714:265–270
54.
TurnerRKellerP, (1991) Angiography and perfusion measurements by NMR. Prog NMR Spectros23:93–133
55.
TurnerRJezzardPWenHKwongKKLe BihanDZeffiroTBalabanRS, (1993) Functional mapping of the human visual cortex at 4 and 1.5 Tesla using deoxygenation contrast EPI. Magn Reson Med29:277–279
56.
van BruggenNCullenBMKingMDDoranMWilliamsSRGadianDGCremerJE, (1992) T2- and diffusion-weighted magnetic resonance imaging of a focal ischemic lesion in the rat brain. Stroke23:576–582
57.
VillringerARosenBRBelliveauJWAckermanJLLaufferRBBuxtonRBChaoYSWedeenVJBradyTJ, (1988) Dynamic imaging with lanthanide chelates in normal brain: Contrast due to magnetic susceptibility effects. Magn Reson Med6:164–174
58.
WarachSChienDLiWRonthalMBEdelmanRR, (1992) Fast magnetic resonance diffusion-weighted imaging of acute human stroke. Neurology42:1717–1723
59.
WeisskoffRMBelliveauJWKwongKRosenBR, (1993) Functional imaging of capillary hemodynamics. In: Magnetic Resonance Angiography, St. Louis, MO, Mosby, pp. 473–484
60.
ZhongJPetroffOAPrichardJWGoreJC, (1993) Changes in water diffusion and relaxation properties of rat cerebrum during status epilepticus. Magn Reson Med30:241–246
