The genesis and potential industrial applications of Lwamondo and Zebediela Kaolins in South Africa were determined. Selected physico-chemical characteristics were determined. Mineralogical characteristics were determined using XRD and SEM; and geochemical characteristics were determined using XRF and LA-ICP-MS. Kaolin colours were generally light (Lwamondo) and brown (Zebediela). Both kaolins had low pH (<6.5) and EC (<50 µS/cm). The texture of Lwamondo Kaolin was generally loam and clay loam, whereas that of Zebediela was clayey, silty and loamy. Major mineral phases were kaolinite, smectite and plagioclase in Lwamondo Kaolin, and kaolinite in Zebediela Kaolin. The morphology of the kaolins consisted mainly of stacks of kaolinite flakes. The most dominant major oxides were SiO2, Al2O3 and Fe2O3, and the kaolins were slightly depleted in light rare earth elements. The studied characteristics indicated that the kaolins (i) formed in a supergene environment and (ii) are suitable for hollow bricks.
GilgHA, HulmeyerS, MillerH, SheppardSMF.1999. Supergene origin of the Lastarria kaolin deposit, South-Central Chile, and paleoclimatic implications.Clays Clay Miner47:201–211. doi:10.1346/CCMN.1999.0470210
2.
BloodworthAJ, HighleyDE, MitchellCJ.1993. Industrial Minerals Laboratory Manual: Kaolin. Nottingham: Mineralogy and Petrology; British Geological SurveySage UK: London, England:p. 80.
3.
EkosseG.2000. The Makoro kaolin deposit, Southeastern Botswana: its genesis and possible industrial applications.Appl Clay Sci16:301–320. doi:10.1016/S0169-1317(99)00059-9
4.
MurrayHH.2000. Traditional and new applications for kaolin, smectite, and palygorskite: a general overview.Appl Clay Sci17:207–221. doi:10.1016/S0169-1317(00)00016-8
5.
MurrayHH, KogelJE.2005. Engineered clay products for the paper industry.Appl Clay Sci29:199–206. doi:10.1016/j.clay.2004.12.005
6.
ObajeSO, OmadaJI, DambattaUA.2013. Clays and their industrial applications: synoptic review.Int J Sci Technol3:264–270.
7.
ZhangZH, ZhuHJ, ZhouCH, WangH.2016. Geopolymer from kaolin in China: an overview.Appl Clay Sci119:31–41. doi:10.1016/j.clay.2015.04.023
8.
LonghiMA, RodríguezED, BernalSA, ProvisJL, KirchheimAP.2016. Valorisation of a kaolin mining waste for the production of geopolymers.J Clean Prod115:265–272. doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2015.12.011
9.
AwadME, López-GalindoA, El-RahmanyMM, El-DesokyHM, ViserasC.2017. Characterization of Egyptian kaolins for health-care uses.Appl Clay Sci135:176–189. doi:10.1016/j.clay.2016.09.018
10.
AwadME, López-GalindoA, SettiM, El-RahmanyMM, IborraCV.2017. Kaolinite in pharmaceutics and biomedicine.Int J Pharm533:34–48. doi:10.1016/j.ijpharm.2017.09.056
11.
OyebanjoO, EkosseG-I, OdiyoJ.2020. Physico-chemical, mineralogical, and chemical characterisation of Cretaceous – Paleogene/Neogene Kaolins within Eastern Dahomey and Niger Delta Basins from Nigeria: possible industrial applications.Minerals. 10:670. doi:10.3390/min10080670
12.
BukaloN, EkosseG-I, OdiyoJ, OgolaJ.2020. Geochemistry and Possible industrial applications of cretaceous-tertiary kaolins of the Douala Sub-Basin, Cameroon.Period Mineral89:225–242.
13.
GougazehM, BuhlJ-C.2010. Geochemical and mineralogical characterization of the Jabal Al-Harad kaolin deposit, Southern Jordan, for its possible utilization.Clay Miner45:301–314. doi:10.1180/claymin.2010.045.3.301
14.
LahcenD, HichamEE, LatifaS, AbderrahmaneA, JamalB, MohamedW, MeriamE, NathalieF.2014. Characteristics and ceramic properties of clayey materials from Amezmiz Region (Western High Atlas, Morocco).Appl Clay Sci102:139–147. doi:10.1016/j.clay.2014.09.029
15.
ArasA, AlbayrakM, ArikanM, SobolevK.2007. Evaluation of selected kaolins as raw materials for the Turkish cement and concrete industry.Clay Miner42:233–244. doi:10.1180/claymin.2007.042.2.08
16.
MeseleA, GideyT, WeldemaryamT, MulualemW, MekuriaT, AliY, MulugetaG, TesfayeB, BrihanM.2021. Mineralogical and geochemical characterisation of kaolin deposit from Debre Tabor area northwestern, Ethiopia.Appl Earth Sci130:42–56. doi:10.1080/25726838.2021.1872820
17.
GezahegnG, GetanehW.2020. Economic geology and genesis of kaolin resources in the East African rift system: the case of Alemtena kaolin deposit, Ethiopia.Appl Earth Sci129:191–204. doi:10.1080/25726838.2020.1809315
18.
EkosseG-IE.2010. Kaolin deposits and occurrences in Africa: geology, mineralogy and utilization.Appl Clay Sci50:212–236. doi:10.1016/j.clay.2010.08.003
19.
HeckroodtRO.1991. Clay and clay materials in South Africa.J South Afr Inst Min Metall. 91:343–363.
20.
AriffinKS, RahmanHA, HussinH, HadiKAA.2008. The genesis and characteristics of primary kaolinitic clay occurrence at Bukit Lampas, Simpang Pulai, Ipoh.Bull Geol Soc Malays54:9–16. doi:10.7186/bgsm54200802
21.
South Africa Department of Mineral Resources & Energy. Overview of the South African Kaolin Industry; Department of Mineral Resources & Energy, Directorate of Mineral Economics and Statistics: Pretoria, South Africa, 2021; p. 17.
22.
RaphalalaniA, EkosseG-I, OdiyoJ, OgolaJ, BukaloN.2019. Trace element and stable isotope Geochemistry of Lwamondo and Zebediela Kaolins, Limpopo Province, South Africa: implication for paleoenvironmental reconstruction.Minerals. 9:93. doi:10.3390/min9020093
23.
BrandlG.2000. Soutpansberg Group. Catalogue of South African Lithostratigraphic units. Pretoria, South Africa: SA Committee for Stratigraphy; Council for GeosciencesSage UK: London, England.
24.
ErikssonPG, ReczkoBFF.1995. The sedimentary and tectonic setting of the Transvaal Supergroup Floor Rocks to the Bushveld Complex.J African Earth Sci21:487–504. doi:10.1016/0899-5362(95)00111-5
25.
CatuneanuO, ErikssonPG.1999. The sequence stratigraphic concept and the Precambrian Rock Record: an example from the 2.7–2.1 Ga Transvaal Supergroup, Kaapvaal Craton.Precambrian Res97:215–251. doi:10.1016/S0301-9268(99)00033-9
26.
Van ReeuwijkLP.2002. Procedures for soil analysis; Technical paper, 6th ed. Wageningen: International Soil Reference and Information CentreSage UK: London, England.; ISBN 90-6672-052-2.
27.
Munsell Soil Colour Book.2009. The Munsell soil colour charts. New York: Kollmorgen Instruments CorpSage UK: London, England.
28.
HughesJC, BrownG.1979. A crystallinity index for soil kaolins and its relation to parent rock, climate and soil maturity.J Soil Sci30:557–563. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2389.1979.tb01009.x
29.
CuadrosJ, LinaresJ.1995. Some evidence supporting the existence of polar layers in mixed-layer illite/smectite.Clays Clay Miner43:467–473. doi:10.1346/CCMN.1995.0430410
30.
DudekT.2012. Clay Minerals as palaeoenvironmental indicators in the Bathonian (Middle Jurassic) ore-bearing clays from Gnaszyn, Kraków-Silesia homocline.Acta Geol Pol62:297–305.
31.
FolorunsoDO, OlubambiP, BorodeJO.2014. Characterization and qualitative analysis of some Nigerian clay deposits for refractory applications.IOSR J Appl Chem7:40–47. doi:10.9790/5736-7914047
32.
EkosseG.2001. Provenance of the Kgwakgwe kaolin deposit in Southeastern Botswana and its possible utilization.Appl Clay Sci20:137–152. doi:10.1016/S0169-1317(01)00064-3
33.
FiantisD, NelsonM, ShamshuddinJ, GohTB, Van RanstE.2010. Determination of the geochemical weathering indices and trace elements content of new volcanic ash deposits from Mt. Talang (West Sumatra) Indonesia.Eurasian Soil Sci43:1477–1485. doi:10.1134/S1064229310130077
34.
RudnickRL, GaoS.2003. 3.01 Composition of the continental crust. In: HollandHD, TurekianKK, editors. Treatise on Geochemistry. Amsterdam: ElsevierSage UK: London, England; Vol. 3, p. 1–64.
35.
SiddiquiMA, AhmedZ, SaleemiAA.2005. Evaluation of swat kaolin deposits of Pakistan for industrial uses.Appl Clay Sci29:55–72. doi:10.1016/j.clay.2004.09.005
36.
Lopez-GalindoA, ViserasC, CerezoP.2007. Compositional, technical and safety specifications of clays to be used as pharmaceutical and cosmetic products.Appl Clay Sci36:51–63. doi:10.1016/j.clay.2006.06.016
37.
SchroederRJ, HayesJB.1968. Dickite and kaolinite in Pennsylvanian Limestones of Southeastern Kansas.Clays Clay Miner16:41–49. doi:10.1346/CCMN.1968.0160106
38.
DikoML, EkosseGE.2012. Physicochemical and mineralogical considerations of Ediki sandstone-hosted kaolin occurrence, South West Cameroon.Int J Phys Sci7:501–507.
39.
Ngon NgonG, BayigaE, Ntamak-NidaM, EtameJ, Noa TangS, Yongue-FouteuR.2012. Trace elements geochemistry of clay deposits of Missole II from the Douala Sub-Basin in Cameroon (Central Africa): a provenance study.Sci Technol Dév13:20–35.
40.
LansonB, BeaufortD, BergerG, BauerA, CassagnabereA, MeunierA.2002. Authigenic kaolin and illitic minerals during burial diagenesis of sandstones: a review.Clay Miner37:1–22. doi:10.1180/0009855023710014
41.
IsmailS, HusainV, AnjumS.2014. Mineralogy and genesis of Nagar Parker kaolin deposits, Tharparkar District, Sindh, Pakistan.Int J Econ Environ Geol5:33–40.
42.
OjoOJ, AdepojuSA, AlhassanN.2014. Geochemical and mineralogical studies of kaolinitic clays in parts of Ilorin, Southwestern Basement Rock Area, Nigeria.Univers J Geosci2:212–221. doi:10.13189/ujg.2014.020704
43.
PeelMC, FinlaysonBL, McMahonTA.2007. Updated world map of the Köppen-Geiger climate classification.Hydrol Earth Syst Sci Discuss.4:439–473.
44.
BeckHE, ZimmermannNE, McVicarTR, VergopolanN, BergA, WoodEF.2018. Present and future Köppen-Geiger climate classification maps at 1-Km resolution.Sci Data. 5:180214. doi:10.1038/sdata.2018.214
45.
MahjoorAS, KarimiM, RastegarlariA.2009. Mineralogical and Geochemical characteristics of clay deposits from South Abarkouh District of clay deposit (Central Iran) and their applications.J Appl Sci9:601–614. doi:10.3923/jas.2009.601.614
46.
MousaDA, AbdouAA, El GendyNH, ShehataMG, KassabMA, AbuhagazaAA.2014. Mineralogical, geochemical and hydrocarbon potential of subsurface Cretaceous Shales, Northern Western Desert, Egypt.Egypt J Petroleum23:67–78. doi:10.1016/j.ejpe.2014.02.010
47.
ManjuCS.2001. Mineralogy, geochemistry and utilization study of the Madayi kaolin deposit, North Kerala, India.Clays Clay Miner49:355–369. doi:10.1346/CCMN.2001.0490409
48.
SantosI, CostaC, QuintelaA, TerrosoD, FerrazE, RochaF, DorzhievaO, KrupskayaV, VigasinaM.2014. Mineralogical composition of sedimentary and residual kaolin deposits from Portugal.Comunicações Geológicas. 101:195–197.
49.
NyakairuGWA, KoeberlC, KurzweilH.2001. The Buwambo kaolin deposit in Central Uganda: mineralogical and chemical composition.Geochem J35:245–256. doi:10.2343/geochemj.35.245
50.
NesbittHW, MarkovicsG, PriceRC.1980. Chemical processes affecting alkalis and alkaline earths during continental weathering.Geochim Cosmochim Acta44:1659–1666. doi:10.1016/0016-7037(80)90218-5
51.
WronkiewiczDJ, CondieKC.1987. Geochemistry of Archean Shales from the Witwatersrand Supergroup, South Africa: source-area weathering and provenance.Geochim Cosmochim Acta51:2401–2416. doi:10.1016/0016-7037(87)90293-6
52.
OyebanjoOO, EkosseGE, OdiyoJO.2020. Geochemistry of oxidic soils developed from different parent rocks in the Limpopo Province, South Africa.Tran R Soc S Africa. 75:165–180. doi:10.1080/0035919X.2020.1765430
53.
ZuopingZ, ChuanxianL.1996. The behaviour of rare-earth elements (REE) during weathering of granites in Southern Guangxi, China.Chin J Geochem15:344–352. doi:10.1007/BF02867008
54.
DillHG, BosseH-R, HenningK-H, FrickeA, AhrendtH.1997. Mineralogical and chemical variations in hypogene and supergene kaolin deposits in a mobile fold belt the Central Andes of Northwestern Peru.Miner Depos32:149–163. doi:10.1007/s001260050081
55.
HarbenPW, BatesRL.1984. Geology of the nonmetallics. New York: Metal BulletinSage UK: London, England. ISBN 0-913333-02-6.
56.
PruettRJ.2016. Kaolin deposits and their uses: Northern Brazil and Georgia, USA.Appl Clay Sci131:3–13. doi:10.1016/j.clay.2016.01.048
57.
AwadME, AmerR, López-GalindoA, El-RahmanyMM, García del MoralLF, ViserasC.2018. Hyperspectral remote sensing for mapping and detection of Egyptian kaolin quality.Appl Clay Sci160:249–262. doi:10.1016/j.clay.2018.02.042
58.
KellerWD.1978. Classification of kaolins exemplified by their textures in scan electron micrographs.Clays Clay Miner26:1–20. doi:10.1346/CCMN.1978.0260101
59.
SeiJ, MoratoF, KraG, StauntonS, QuiquampoixH, JumasJC, Olivier-FourcadeJ.2006. Mineralogical, crystallographic and morphological characteristics of natural kaolins from the Ivory Coast (West Africa).J Afr Earth Sci46:245–252. doi:10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2006.06.002
60.
WinklervH.1954. Bedeutung Der Korngrössenverteilung Und Des Mineral-Bestandes von Tonen Für Die Herstellung Grobkeramischer Erzeugnisse.Ber Dtsch Keram Ges. 31:337–343.
61.
DondiM, FabbriB, GuariniG.1998. Grain-size distribution of Italian raw materials for building clay products: a reappraisal of the Winkler diagram.Clay Miner33:435–442. doi:10.1180/000985598545732
62.
MonteiroSN, VieiraCMF.2004. Influence of firing temperature on the ceramic properties of clays from Campos Dos Goytacazes, Brazil.Appl Clay Sci27:229–234. doi:10.1016/j.clay.2004.03.002
63.
McManusJ.1988. Grain size distribution and interpretation. In: TuckerM, editor. Techniques in sedimentology. Oxford: Blackwell ScientificSage UK: London, England; p. 65–88.
64.
MurrayHH.1986. Clays in Ullmann's Encyclopedia of industrial chemistry, 5th ed.Weinheim: Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbHSage UK: London, England.
65.
NgoleVM, Georges-IvoEE, AyongheSN.2007. Physico-chemical, mineralogical and chemical considerations in understanding the 2001 Mabeta new layout landslide, Cameroon.J Appl Sci Environ Manage11:201–208.
66.
DondiM, IglesiasC, DominguezE, GuariniG, RaimondoM.2008. The effect of kaolin properties on their behaviour in ceramic processing as illustrated by a range of kaolins from the Santa Cruz and Chubut Provinces, Patagonia (Argentina).Appl Clay Sci40:143–158. doi:10.1016/j.clay.2007.07.003
