Employment and Career Development Among Autistic Adults: Self and Caregiver Perceptions

Abstract

Background:

The number of autistic individuals seeking employment has been rising, but many autistic individuals struggle to achieve optimal employment outcomes. Workplace barriers (e.g., insufficient on-the-job training) have impacted the ability of autistic adults to obtain and maintain employment. Drawing from neurodiversity-affirming practices to highlight the unique strengths that each autistic adult can bring to the workplace, we examined autistic interns and their caregivers’ perspectives regarding employment and career development.

Methods:

Within the context of the 2021 science, technology, engineering, and mathematics–related summer internship, researchers conducted individual interviews lasting approximately 45–60 minutes with 14 autistic interns and 17 caregivers. Researchers audio-recorded and transcribed each interview verbatim and then used a theme-based coding approach and achieved interrater agreement, with pooled Cohen’s kappa values ranging from 0.86 to 1.00.

Results:

Our findings indicated that autistic interns generally felt they experienced difficulty securing full-time, long-term paid positions. Despite previous jobs often not aligning with their interests, interns expressed strong motivation to obtain positions driven by their passions and goals. Although interns faced job access challenges due to a lack of relevant educational background or work experience, their strengths, such as persistence in performing job duties, could support them in obtaining and maintaining employment. Caregivers also expressed concerns about interns finding suitable employment. They felt that previous jobs did not align with the interns’ skills and believed that recognizing the interns’ potential and capabilities could help them thrive.

Conclusions:

Our findings suggested that employers should acknowledge the strengths of each autistic individual, as they can bring value to the workplace. Highlighting the unique characteristics of autistic individuals and creating more inclusive workplaces can help autistic individuals fulfill their potential. Researchers discuss implications for potential employers and the neurodivergent community.

Community Brief

Why is this an important issue?

Autistic individuals possess a sense of self-worth, along with strengths and skills that can add value to the workplace and should be recognized by employers. However, employers and workplaces have not provided optimal employment opportunities for this population. By listening to autistic interns’ perspectives on obtaining and maintaining employment, we sought to better understand these issues, aiming to inform ways to improve employment outcomes for autistic individuals.

What was the purpose of this study?

We aimed to understand the experiences of autistic interns related to obtaining and maintaining jobs. Specifically, we wanted to know what kinds of jobs autistic interns had in the past, what problems they faced in getting and keeping those jobs, and the strengths they believed they possessed. We also looked into what they hoped for in future jobs, such as the kind of work they want to do and the skills necessary for those jobs.

What did the researchers do?

We conducted one-on-one interviews with 14 autistic interns and 17 caregivers, transcribed each interview, and looked for common themes related to autistic interns’ employment experiences and career development.

What were the results of this study?

Three key themes developed from our interview data. First, the interns in our study held a variety of jobs, but predominantly in blue-collar roles that they and their caregivers felt did not align with their interests and career aspirations. Second, despite the interns’ efforts to find meaningful and suitable jobs, they encountered limited opportunities, including high standards for entry-level positions. Additionally, some lacked the educational background required for the jobs they desired. Moreover, the interns often felt they had not received sufficient training and support in the workplace. The third theme revealed that, despite these challenges, the interns expressed a sense of self-worth and highlighted specific strengths and skills that employers should appreciate, such as their self-determination and excellent pattern recognition skills.

What do these findings add to what was already known?

Informed by neurodiversity-affirming practices, our findings contribute to the existing knowledge by highlighting the importance of employers understanding the unique characteristics of each autistic individual and providing them with adequate training and support. We emphasize that autistic individuals have strengths and skills that can significantly benefit workplaces when given the opportunity to showcase their abilities. Our study reveals that despite facing obstacles in obtaining and maintaining employment, autistic interns showed great determination in their job search and remained optimistic, actively taking steps to achieve their career goals.

What are potential weaknesses in the study?

Our study had a small sample size and lacked diversity, and we only examined a group of autistic adults participating in a STEM-related internship. These limitations may reduce the applicability of the findings to other autistic individuals.

How will these findings help autistic adults now or in the future?

Our findings may help employers understand the needs of autistic individuals so that they can be better supported in the workplace. Employers can adjust based on autistic individuals’ strengths to help them succeed. Hearing about qualifications for certain jobs can also motivate autistic individuals to set goals to meet those requirements.

Introduction

Obtaining and maintaining employment may significantly affect an individual’s quality of life and their self-esteem.¹ For autistic individuals, being able to secure employment not only provides financial stability, but it also fosters personal growth and life satisfaction.² Recent studies show that employment can also positively impact the psychological well-being of autistic individuals, which is particularly important as these individuals may also exhibit comorbid diagnoses (e.g., anxiety, depression) that negatively affect their mental health.^3,4

Employment opportunities and barriers for autistic adults

The number of autistic individuals entering the workforce has visibly increased in recent decades.⁵ Despite this growth, employment outcomes for this population have not been optimal. Data from a nationally representative survey of 500 caregivers of autistic young adults aged 19–23 revealed that approximately 34.9% of autistic young adults were at risk of not engaging in any postsecondary education or employment within 2 years of high school graduation.⁶ In the United States, unemployment rates were lower in the general population, at 9.4% in 2010.⁷ In addition to those who are unemployed, some autistic adults experience underemployment, meaning their skills and qualifications are underutilized, which negatively impacts their mental health.⁸

Workplace barriers and lack of support for autistic adults

One common concern for autistic adults in employment is workplace barriers, such as insufficient on-the-job training and accommodations to help them adjust to new job tasks and routines.^9,10 Research indicates that employment programs offering job-specific support and assistance have been effective in helping autistic individuals obtain employment and make meaningful contributions to their communities.^2,11 For example, providing autistic adults with “supports for workplace participation” (e.g., transportation to the workplace) could help address workplace barriers.¹(p. 35) Additionally, training that targets essential job-related skills in a natural work environment can help autistic adults understand and complete job tasks.¹² Unfortunately, these employment programs are scarce.⁶ Research indicates that employed autistic adults are less likely to obtain full-time jobs and earn lower compensation compared with neurotypical employees, despite having similar qualifications.¹ Furthermore, poor job matches, such as jobs that do not align with individuals’ skills or experiences and offer no growth opportunities, can hinder workplace success.¹ When an autistic adult’s education level exceeds job requirements, they are more likely to change jobs.^9,13

Navigating and developing work-related skills

Some autistic adults may face challenges in developing essential work-related skills, requiring support and understanding from coworkers and employers to foster respect and accommodate their needs. These challenges include expectations to demonstrate strong organizational skills, manage time effectively, and maintain attention.³ For instance, adjusting to changes in routines and managing sensory stimuli in the workplace can present unique challenges, leading to increased levels of stress and anxiety for some autistic individuals.⁴ The employment hiring process may also hinder some autistic adults from obtaining employment. For example, traditional interviews may not always reflect the strengths and communication styles of autistic adults, which makes it difficult for them to effectively represent themselves and their job skills.^2,14,15 Relatedly, managing time effectively to meet job application deadlines can be a struggle, underscoring the need for individualized accommodations in the hiring process.²

Societal attitudes and the need for long-term employment support

Societal factors also significantly shape autistic adults’ employment experiences. Historically, society viewed autism characteristics through a deficit-based lens, leading to negative attitudes from employers and coworkers and negatively impacting autistic individuals’ employment experiences.¹ Black and colleagues¹⁶ further supported this view, highlighting how stigma and a lack of understanding of autism created workplace challenges for autistic adults. The absence of long-term individualized support, such as job coaches, can hinder performance monitoring and assistance.¹ Employers and coworkers should receive autism awareness training to better support autistic adults in their employment and career development. This training can enhance understanding of autistic individuals and highlight the strengths and contributions they bring to the workplace.¹⁷

Neurodiversity-affirming practices show promise for autistic employment

Society has long viewed autistic individuals through a deficit lens and mistreated them as disabled persons who should be normalized to align with typical developmental standards.¹⁸ Neurodiversity-affirming practices challenge this deficit-oriented perspective, proposing that many challenges faced by autistic individuals stem from society’s lack of understanding and the implicit biases held by non-autistic individuals.^19,20 These practices encourage us to value the unique characteristics and abilities of each individual and to consider how societal structures and environments impact them rather than treating autistic individuals based on neurotypical standards.¹⁸ The growing emphasis on neurodiversity-affirming practices reflects the need for more research to highlight the strengths and contributions that autistic individuals can bring to the workplace rather than focusing solely on the challenges they have faced.

Autistic individuals can contribute numerous strengths to the workplace.² For example, some autistic adults exhibit preferences for the same routines and repetitive work, and many demonstrate superior concentration on tasks.² Cominsky and colleagues²¹ also highlighted specific strengths that autistic individuals often possess, such as attention to detail, pattern recognition, and passion for technology, which could align well with careers in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM). If employers adopt a positive perspective toward autism, the employment prospects for autistic individuals can improve significantly.¹⁸ Hendricks recommended providing training for employers and coworkers to foster understanding and appreciation of the unique characteristics and behaviors of autistic individuals, positioning them as valuable assets in the workplace.⁴ In fact, diverse employee groups within a company can yield various benefits, including improved decision-making and problem-solving abilities, ultimately enhancing overall company performance.²² Additionally, team diversity fosters an awareness of different perspectives among individuals, promoting creative thinking and an open-minded attitude.²³

Additionally, research indicates that some autistic individuals are highly motivated to pursue education and careers in STEM-related fields.²⁴ Existing STEM internship and training programs show promise for enhancing the employment opportunities of autistic adults. For example, autistic software test analyst trainees participating in a 3-year employment program reported experiencing a sense of purpose in the workplace with the support of co-workers and environmental modifications.³ Similarly, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration’s Neurodiversity Network is a 5-year training program that supports autistic interns in acquiring new technical skills and knowledge, gaining insights into STEM careers, and cultivating a feeling of inclusion in the science community.²¹ These programs show promise for autistic individuals passionate about pursuing careers in STEM. Despite the growing demand for STEM professionals and the interest of some autistic individuals who possess valuable assets related to STEM careers (e.g., attention to detail), autistic individuals remain underemployed in these fields.²¹

The current study

This study sought to understand the employment experiences of autistic adults. Past research has predominantly used deficit-based terms such as “impairments,” “disabled,” or “disorder” to describe autistic individuals, often overlooking the significant impact of environments and their contexts.¹⁸ In this study, we adopt a neurodiversity-affirming approach that empowers autistic adults to share the workplace barriers autistic adults have encountered and highlights the strengths they bring to the workplace. To capture multiple perspectives on interns’ experiences, we also analyzed caregivers’ responses. Caregivers offer a unique lens, as they often play a significant role in supporting their autistic children’s employment journeys.²⁵ Their insights provide a complementary understanding of the employment experiences of autistic adults.

Moreover, past research has often relied on secondary survey data, such as the National Longitudinal Transition Study-2 (NLTS-2), to describe the employment experiences of young autistic adults.^10,26 However, researchers collected NLTS-2 data over a decade ago, so the findings may be outdated. More recent studies have employed qualitative methods, such as interviews, to examine the employment outcomes of autistic adults. Some of these studies specifically analyzed the barriers autistic adults encountered during job interviews.^27,28 This has left a gap in understanding the broader employment experiences of autistic adults, including their past employment and future employment expectations.

This study addresses these limitations by utilizing primary interview data from autistic interns and their caregivers. Study participants enrolled in a promising new tech-intensive internship program, specifically designed to support neurodivergent interns in obtaining employment and developing essential STEM skills for career development. This study reports on individual interviews conducted during the internship. The primary aim of this study was to characterize the experiences and expectations of autistic interns in obtaining and maintaining employment in the United States, as described by both the interns and their caregivers.

Methods

Participants

To explore employment issues from multiple perspectives, we recruited autistic individuals and caregivers from a larger National Science Foundation (NSF)–funded study aimed at developing a technology internship program that taps into neurodivergent strengths. In the larger study, interns participated in an 8-week technology internship program at a local university. The second author, a co-Principal Investigator (PI) on the NSF study, was responsible for designing the social workplace training and support for the interns. Individuals on the autism spectrum applied for this internship through various sources, such as the National Foundation for Autism Research (NFAR). They submitted job applications, which included a detailed résumé indicating their education, work experience, and other relevant interests or skills for the internship. In a follow-up conversation with the internship coordinator, interested candidates who submitted their online application described their interest in a particular role on a game design team—programmer, artist, designer, or project manager—and explained why their skill set aligned with that role. Candidates also confirmed availability to participate in the 8-week internship.

After the first week of the summer internship program, the research team contacted all interns and their caregivers via email or phone to inquire about their willingness and interest to participate. A total of 31 participants agreed to take part in our interview, including 17 caregivers and 14 autistic interns. The interns had a mean age of 26.5 years, ranging from 19 to 33 years. The research team collected demographic data for both interns and caregivers separately from the interviews. For comprehensive demographic information, please refer to Table 1 and 2.

Table 1.

Intern Demographic Information

	Number	Percentage (%)
Gender
Male	12	86
Female	2	14
Other/Decline to state/missing	0	0
Age
18–23	5	36
24–29	5	36
30–35	4	28
Race/Ethnicity
Asian/Asian American	2	14
Black/African American	0	0
White/Caucasian	5	36
Hispanic/Latino	1	7
White Asian Mix	1	7
Other	1	7
Missing	4	29
Highest education
High school diploma	2	14
BA degree	4	29
AA degree	1	7
Training/Certificates	1	7
Still in college	5	36
Attended college/Did not Graduate	1	7
Employment status
Employed full-time	0	0
Employed part-time	2	14
Not employed currently, but seeking employment	3	21
Not employed	4	29
Missing	5	36
Types of past employment^a
Blue collar	13
White collar	1
STEM field position	4
Internship	7
Volunteer	6
Annual household income
$25,000 or below	1	7
$25,000–$49,999	0	0
$50,000–$74,999	0	0
$75,000–$99,000	0	0
$100,000 or more	7	50
Decline to state	1	7
Missing	5	36
Is the Intern Receiving Public Assistance
Yes	4	28
No	5	36
Unsure/Decline to state	0	0
Missing	5	36

Interns held multiple jobs. Thus, frequencies are denoted in the table rather than percentages.

Table 2.

Caregiver Demographic Information

	Number	Percentage (%)
Gender
Female	13	76
Male	2	12
Other/Decline to state/Missing	2	12
Relationship to the intern
Mother	11	65
Father	1	6
Stepmother	1	6
Great aunt	1	6
Other/Decline to state/Missing	3	17
Highest education
High school diploma or equivalent	0	0
Bachelor’s degree	7	40
Master’s degree	4	24
PhD	0	0
Trade school	2	12
Other/Decline to state/Missing	4	24
Marital status
Married	12	70
Divorced	2	12
Single	1	6
Other/Decline to state/Missing	2	12
Annual household income
$25,000 or below	1	6
$25,000–$49,999	0	0
$50,000–$74,999	0	0
$75,000–$99,000	1	6
$100,000 or more	11	65
Other/Decline to state/Missing	4	23

Setting

The research team conducted the study during a 2021 paid summer internship program aimed at enhancing interns’ computer programming and engineering skills through the development of a computer game for a real client. This internship provided accommodations specifically designed to support neurodivergent individuals, including individualized supports tailored to interns’ unique needs. Moreover, it adopted a person-centered approach by offering flexible work arrangements and accommodating communication preferences. The program included these elements to address the challenges and leverage the strengths of neurodivergent interns. It compensated each intern $3,000 for their participation and divided them into smaller cohorts based on their specific roles. Each role had specific responsibilities. For example, the artist had to learn programs such as Krita to design the 2D art animation for the game; the programmer had to learn GitHub and Unity to develop the code for the game commands and actions. “Coaches” guided interns to meet deadlines, utilize programming tools, and make progress on their work. The coaches’ expertise and backgrounds varied. Two of the coaches had a background in art and design, two coaches specialized in game design, and one coach had a self-identified “passion” for programming. One coach self-identified as neurodivergent, and the four other coaches identified as neurotypical. Throughout the 8-week program, cohorts met daily with their coaches and team members to address challenges and refine aspects of their game. The interns also met periodically with their client to present portions of the game and receive feedback. In addition, interns attended periodic “Lunch and Learn” sessions to facilitate employment readiness. These sessions featured guest lectures from technology company executives, work sessions to support résumé building, and tips for how to engage efficiently as a collaborative team member. At the end of the internship, each team presented their games to an audience, including “clients” and family members; audience members even had opportunities to play the games.

Procedure

The study obtained approval from the university’s institutional review board. The research team asked selected interns to voluntarily complete a demographic questionnaire via Qualtrics, providing contact information for themselves and their caregivers. We also developed a semi-structured interview protocol for autistic interns and their caregivers, based on study objectives spanning various domains (e.g., employment, autonomy, autistic identity, and school experience). We took a neurodiversity-affirming approach to asking interview questions. For example, at the beginning of the interview, we asked participants the language they preferred we use when referring to their autism, and then we used their preferred language throughout. We also asked them (or their adult children, in the case of caregivers) to tell us about themselves and their life experiences with no mention of disability, challenge, or autism. We wanted to understand how they viewed themselves in their own words. The current study focused on a subset of questions related to employment. Rather than posing questions through a deficit-based lens, four out of five employment-related questions focused on individual strengths. The fifth question asked interns to describe broadly barriers related to employment. These interview questions included: (1) “Have you had any previous employment experiences?” (2) “What strengths helped you in obtaining or maintaining employment?” (3) “What strengths did you show when seeking out this internship, specifically?” (4) “What are your expectations for future employment from your participation in this internship?”(5) “Were there barriers in obtaining or maintaining employment?” We used the same interview questions for caregivers but worded them from the caregivers’ perspectives.

Among those who agreed to participate in this study (17 caregivers and 14 interns), the research team conducted individual interviews over Zoom, considering the constraints of the COVID-19 pandemic. Each interview lasted approximately 45–60 minutes, and participants received $15 USD gift cards as compensation for their time.

Data analysis

Two PhD students audio-recorded and transcribed the interviews verbatim. One student conducted the initial transcription, while the other performed a second round of review to ensure the accuracy of each transcript. Two PhD researchers and two PhD students with experience in qualitative research and analysis employed a social constructivist epistemology approach to data analysis. This approach, widely utilized in qualitative research studies, posits that knowledge is constructed by individuals based on their personal experiences within their social and historical contexts.²⁹ To identify the patterns in the data, researchers used Braun and Clarke’s theme-based approach to code the transcripts.³⁰ First, we utilized deductive analysis, coding the data guided by the existing literature (e.g., neurodiversity-affirming practices, autistic adults’ employment experiences) and research questions.³¹ During the initial round of coding, all four researchers carefully read and reread four transcripts to identify initial themes focused specifically on autistic adults’ employment experiences and expectations.³² Through multiple rounds of discussion, the researchers collaboratively developed an initial set of codes. We assigned theme names to these codes, provided definitions, and supported them with relevant examples from the transcripts.

To further enrich the coding process, we performed a second round of inductive coding with four different transcripts to identify any codes not identified initially. Inductive coding analysis involves the process of examining the data and allowing codes, patterns, and themes to naturally develop.³¹ We discussed any new themes derived from these new codes, and if we reached a consensus, we included them in the codebook. We eventually consolidated all the identified codes into the codebook, which included themes, subthemes, detailed definitions, and example excerpts.³³

After finalizing the codebook, the second author transferred the codes and transcripts into Dedoose Version 9.0.17,³⁴ a data analysis software program. Each researcher independently applied the codes to a quarter of the transcripts within Dedoose. The researchers created reliability tests for the relevant codes to evaluate the reliability and consistency of the coding process within this dataset. The researchers achieved a pooled Cohen’s kappa value of between 0.86 and 1.00 across three reliability tests. Previous research has shown that this indicates excellent agreement across coders.³⁵ Researchers discussed areas of discrepancy after each test until reaching 100% agreement. Please refer to Table 3.

Table 3.

Summary of Themes

Theme	Subtheme	Definitions	Representative quotation(s)	Percentage of intern interviews including theme (%)	Percentage of caregiver interviews including theme (%)
(Mis) aligned employment opportunities	Mis aligned	Interns and caregivers discussed the interns’ past employment experiences and assessed the alignment between their job interests and expectations. Instances where the interns’ interests and career goals did not align with their expectations.	“Well, actually, I was doing a bit of everything, washing the car, drying the car, stuff like that … not that long. Those jobs I had, I didn’t like them … I knew that wasn’t my place.”	57	65
	Aligned	Interns and caregivers discussed the interns’ past employment experiences and assessed the alignment between their job interests and expectations. Instances where the interns’ interests and career goals aligned with their expectations	“I’ve definitely held jobs for more than a single year, I was at an actual corporation for three and a half years. So, I can hold down a job very successfully. I’ve worked in small scale and large scale corporations … I will be working starting in September at Farmers as a full stack developer.”	43	35
Job access challenges		Interns and caregivers described individual access challenges related to obtaining and maintaining employment.	“… it could be the requirements, like a lot of times they asked for a bachelor’s degree, and I don’t have it or an associate degree because I just have certificates.”	100	88
Self-worth, strength, and skills		Interns and caregivers highlighted their value, strengths, and skills related to obtaining and maintaining employment.	“I’m pleasant to work with and … I intend to continuously learn and improve myself.”	86	65

Researcher positionality

The lead author identifies as a female, Asian, neurotypical doctoral student. The remaining authors (all female) consist of one Latinx researcher (faculty), one White researcher (faculty), and one White doctoral student. We note that, while all the authors identify as neurotypical, they possess extensive experience working with autistic communities, drawing from diverse clinical, educational, and research backgrounds focused on autistic individuals and their families. We focused on the strengths and potential of each autistic individual in understanding their employment experiences. Despite our efforts to approach interviews through a neurodiversity-affirming lens, we acknowledge that the research is limited by the exclusion of autistic individuals on the research team. To address this limitation, we adopted a social constructivist epistemological approach to incorporate the personal experiences, as well as the social and historical contexts of the participants, into our data analysis.²⁹ We further acknowledge that, while we aimed to maintain a neurodiversity-affirming approach in the interviews, the larger internship context included both affirming and non-affirming elements. For example, some elements promoted neurodiversity-affirming practices, such as giving interns the agency to work on tasks at times that suited them best, facilitating collaborative client–cohort meetings where interns shared their expertise, and coordinating decision-making processes for game design. However, some elements did not promote neurodiversity-affirming practices, such as the Lunch and Learn sessions that included some education on neurotypical workplace norms, and the fact that all but one internship coach were neurotypical.

Results

Participants shared their insights of past employment experiences and their perspectives on obtaining and maintaining employment and described their expectations for their future employment. The interview findings aligned with common themes found across all interviews.

Autistic interns’ and their caregivers’ perceptions of obtaining and maintaining employment in the United States

We identified three themes from our interview data in understanding interns’ employment experiences and their perspectives on obtaining and maintaining employment: (1) (mis)aligned employment opportunities; (2) job access challenges and insufficient support; and (3) self-worth, strengths, and skills.

(Mis)aligned employment opportunities

Autistic interns held various employment in the past, most of which were part-time, short-term, and blue-collar positions (e.g., grocery store clerk). These jobs often did not align with the interns’ personal interests or long-term goals. Autistic interns and caregivers reflected on job alignment by sharing their employment experiences and expressing expectations for future opportunities that better matched their interests and career goals.

Interns’ perspectives

A 24-year-old autistic intern with a high school diploma, currently training at Job Corps, reflected on his unsatisfying past work experiences:

I did work in a restaurant, I also worked in a pizza joint, and then I also worked in a carwash. I was just being like a detailer. Well, actually, I was doing a bit of everything, washing the car, drying the car, stuff like that … not that long. Those jobs I had, I didn’t like them … I knew that wasn’t my place.

After holding various blue-collar roles that did not align with his interests, this intern recognized that his career aspirations extended beyond these positions. His comments on future employment goals reinforced this sentiment, as he expressed a desire for a career aligned with his interests and offering financial stability:

For my future, definitely to live a life free of worries, free of money worries. I really want to pursue something like software development, software testing, I can try to do that.

Similarly, another autistic intern, currently attending a community college and planning to transfer to a four-year university, shared his experiences working part-time as a courtesy clerk at a grocery store, where he handled tasks such as picking up trash and sweeping floors. He also worked at a manufacturing solutions company, inspecting circuit boards under a microscope, and briefly held a temporary position soldering electronics onto metal boards. However, the company let him go from that role for not meeting their speed and quality standards. Despite these setbacks, he expressed a clear goal of pursuing higher education to enter the tech industry, with the ultimate aim of securing a leadership position:

My current expectation is to go get my education and graduate college. After that, I would like to work in a tech industry and perhaps become an entrepreneur. I would like to become the leader of a tech interest industry.

Another autistic intern, who is a college graduate, expressed a preference for a role as a tester or developer. After completing his degree, he volunteered as a graphic design teacher’s aide at a high school and applied for several positions, including one through Dell’s neurodivergent hiring program. However, he struggled to find a job that matched his interests, such as a graphic designer role. Nevertheless, he remained hopeful and shared his expectations for the future:

Finding a permanent and well-paying job that I enjoy working at and finding a place to live on my own. Basically, take the next step and be independent. That’s my dream.

Despite some misalignments, a few autistic adults shared their experiences of securing successful, long-term employment that they felt could align with their interests and skills. For instance, a 31-year-old autistic intern with a Bachelor’s degree in Biology recounted his previous work experiences, which he found satisfying:

I’ve definitely held jobs for more than a single year, I was at an actual corporation for three and a half years. So, I can hold down a job very successfully. I’ve worked in small scale and large scale corporations … I will be working starting in September at [an insurance company] as a full stack developer.

In the longer term, he aspired to build a career as “a successful programmer predominantly either in application or game development.” He hoped that participating in this internship program would help him develop the skills needed for game-related jobs.

Caregivers’ perspectives

Caregivers shared their insights into the interns’ experiences. While the interns had held various jobs, caregivers felt these roles often did not align with their interns’ interests and abilities. They were also concerned that most of these jobs were part-time, temporary, and poorly paid.

Reflecting on the work experience of her 25-year-old autistic intern, who has a high school diploma, a caregiver noted that she felt her intern’s previous blue-collar jobs did not align with his abilities or long-term goals:

A lot of the jobs that he’s gone after in the past have been in some form of restaurant, so fast food … whatever. Honestly, I just think that those have been mismatches for him.

She believed that these part-time roles would prevent him from achieving his dreams, as he deserved a fulfilling career, not just random jobs. She hoped he would find something he loves, something he is passionate about, leading to a meaningful livelihood. As an example, she described an internship where her son managed social media for a suicide prevention program—an experience that brought him pride and purpose.

Another caregiver of an autistic intern with a college degree in Modern History shared that her son aspired to pursue a doctoral degree and become a History professor. However, she recognized the potential challenges he might face in managing the multifaceted demands of being an instructor. She also noted that his work experience did not align with his career goal:

He’s really come a long way and he had a couple of jobs. It’s hard to say there were a couple places that let him go because he wasn’t fast enough. That was in the food industry, and I guess they were looking for someone who could really handle the heavy rush of certain periods of the day.

She expressed hope that participating in internships would provide her son with “a broader viewpoint of what else is available to him,” giving him more career options to explore.

Similarly, a caregiver of an autistic intern, who studied Multimedia at a community college and earned four certificates in the field, shared that her son had an unsuccessful experience as a waiter at a fast food restaurant, where he frequently forgot tasks. Eventually, they “stopped giving him hours without even a word of why.” She expressed hope that this internship would boost her son’s confidence, provide a valuable experience, and equip him the skills needed for future employment:

My hope is that he has a breakthrough and finds the right employment to blossom and really show all his capabilities and his knowledge … I hope that he will be able to find employment and that he will become independent, financially and emotionally independent.

Although many caregivers recognized misalignments between their interns’ goals and job experiences, one caregiver felt that her intern was thriving in his current role as a quality assurance software engineer, stating, “he’s never been able to do as well as he’s doing right now.” This intern had not yet attended college but had completed a certificate in quality assurance software engineering. Like other caregivers, she hoped her intern would find a career he loved that also provided financial independence.

Job access challenges and insufficient support

Our autistic interns were eager to obtain full-time employment, but they encountered limited opportunities. Employers often expected candidates to have advanced degrees or extensive experience for entry-level positions, qualifications that most of our interns did not possess. More companies have launched neurodiversity hiring programs, but employers still need to provide additional support and accommodations for autistic adults.

Interns’ perspectives

Many participants noted that employers often required at least a bachelor’s degree, a qualification that only four autistic interns possessed at the time of our interview, thus significantly restricting the employment opportunities available to participants. A 23-year-old autistic adult, who had not yet obtained a bachelor’s degree but held a certificate from NFAR, described how restrictive educational requirements can be. He had previously worked as a temporary employee at Home Goods and Subway, stating:

… it could be the requirements, like a lot of times they asked for a bachelor’s degree, and I don’t have it or an associate degree because I just have certificates.

Other participants noted that potential employers often required extensive work experience, even for entry-level positions, which explained their repeated rejections. Participants commonly faced rejection, even among those who met the educational requirements. A 30-year-old college graduate expressed his frustration during the interview:

There’s a lot of jobs out there … asking for a little more than an entry level … in those that are allowing entry level, [I] still don’t have the right amount [of] experience.

These autistic adults found the pursuit of employment to be an exhausting and mentally stressful experience. Participants voiced frustration with their job-seeking experiences and identified a lack of professional connections as another major barrier. Many felt uncertain about where and how to find suitable job opportunities. They often applied through job websites such as Indeed, but they frequently faced rejections. When they asked about employment barriers, a 22-year-old autistic adult, who had attended some college and worked as a data entry intern at a children’s hospital, shared:

My understanding is the best way to get employed is to have connections and network and stuff like that, but I haven’t had a huge amount of connections available. So most of the time, I just tried to apply online with my resume, but that’s kind of a dead end.

Caregivers’ perspectives

Caregivers shared similar concerns as their interns. Employment has been a major worry, especially as they watched their interns struggle to secure jobs that other youth their age could more easily access. One caregiver of a 23-year-old autistic intern, who holds a multimedia degree from a community college and additional certificates in the field, stated:

Employment, I would say, is a big issue. Education, and the fact that he has not been able to go for or receive an AA or a BA … [That] doesn’t show his effort and his achievements. It just shows that he doesn’t have that degree … If you don’t have a B.A. at least, you’re singled out from a lot of employment.

One caregiver of an intern with a Bachelor’s degree in Game Development acknowledged that some companies’ neurodiversity programs view their efforts as “a positive impact” rather than merely “a corporate social responsibility thing.” However, she emphasized that recruiters would need additional accommodations to properly assess autistic adults who are intelligent and capable of contributing. She noted:

How do you get the companies to even look at your resume or talk to you because most of them won’t have completed college degrees … they may not be able to attempt [the] SAT, so they’ll have just done community college.

Traditional job application measures, such as interviews that require eye contact and quick, direct responses, may not be effective assessments for autistic interns. A caregiver of a 30-year-old autistic intern with a college degree in Computer Science shared her thoughts on neurodiversity-affirming programs in some tech companies:

I have looked into some of these programs … like Microsoft just got a program for people on the spectrum. And there are a number of big Fortune 500 companies that do. And also these companies still have a sort of traditional interview, even for people on the spectrum. And that’s going to create a hurdle because they’re not going to perform very well, probably in a traditional interview, where they are barking questions at you.

Additionally, she recommended providing workplace training on how to support individuals on the spectrum. Another caregiver echoed this suggestion, noting that many companies did not equip themselves to accommodate autistic individuals:

These companies also did not have the infrastructure to work with him, and not the time and the planning, to give him that additional support and the additional time he needed.

Autistic interns and caregivers expressed that workplaces often failed to provide the structure needed to support autistic adults, leading to their frequent marginalization and preventing them from fully utilizing their abilities and talents. Additionally, our data highlighted substantial opportunities for growth among interns, including further education, increased work experiences, stronger professional connections, and improved interviewing skills. These are crucial for securing the positions our interns aspire to attain.

Self-worth, strengths, and skills

Despite facing barriers in accessing desired employment and experiencing insufficient workplace support, autistic interns believed they possessed self-worth, strengths, and skills that enabled them to excel as employees.

Interns’ perspectives

Autistic interns frequently highlighted their persistence and determination in performing job duties and continuously improving their skill set. A 28-year-old intern, still in college and engaged in clerical work, shared: “I think I was just very determined to work and be involved in this [internship] program.” Another 30-year-old intern, also in college and with previous experience as a grocery store clerk, stated, “I’m pleasant to work with and … I intend to continuously learn and improve myself.” Additionally, a 22-year-old intern with an associate degree explained how decisiveness served as an asset in his workplace:

Being very focused and decisive. Because a lot of times in the workplace, especially [sandwich shop], or a restaurant environment is very fast paced and can be very stressful. So, being quick about that kind of stuff and being very decisive was very helpful.

Several interns highlighted another notable strength: their interpersonal skills. A 25-year-old intern with a high school degree mentioned that his ability to build rapport allowed him to establish strong connections, contributing to his success in the workplace:

… something I wasn’t good at at first, but then I used some rapport building techniques to be able to get better at the job and even became a top performer of the job.

Expanding on interpersonal skills, an intern who was still in college mentioned that his contributions within a team were recognized. He described himself as a flexible team player in collaborative environments:

my abilities to take over as [a] leader when need be … because when there’s disagreements or differences of opinions, I’m usually the one who steps in to help mediate, also try and reach a conclusion together.

In addition to being a team leader, this intern described his interview proficiency. He believed he excelled in interviews, explaining “a lot of interview questions, I found myself to answer both in depth while also sharing my heart [and] my personality.”

Several interns also described skills specifically related to STEM fields. For example, an intern who attended some college mentioned his ability to “pick up computer-related things fairly quickly.” When encountering something new, he was able to learn it in a very short time.

Caregivers’ perspectives

During interviews, caregivers also recognized the self-worth, strengths, and skills that autistic interns identified. One caregiver shared that her intern, who was not in college, gained confidence and a sense of self-worth while doing software-related tasks:

I’ve noticed the biggest differences as he turned [to] software systems testing, he’s gaining confidence in himself, and he sees worth in doing something, he feels some self-worth. He feels confident that he will be able to find a job and that he will be successful.

Similarly, another caregiver of a 22-year-old autistic intern with an associate degree observed:

I think that both the internships gave him a lot of confidence, and he was able to see for himself what his strong points are – that he is able to work as a team, that he’s able to be a leader.

Autistic interns and their caregivers discussed the self-worth, strengths, and skills that deserve recognition. These qualities highlight that autistic individuals possess valuable work-related attributes that contribute to their success as employees. Employers should recognize and value these strengths.

Discussion

Historically, autistic adults have faced challenges in securing optimal employment opportunities in workplaces that value their strengths and assets.¹ It is crucial to amplify the voices of autistic individuals and explore their perspectives on obtaining and maintaining employment.¹⁷ While recent studies have provided qualitative data, they have primarily focused on recruitment processes, such as job interviews.^27,28 Additionally, much of the past research has overly emphasized the negative experiences of autistic adults. Our study provides a comprehensive view of employment experiences from the perspectives of autistic interns and their caregivers, addressing both the challenges they face and highlighting their sense of self-worth, strengths, and skills. Aligned with neurodiversity-affirming practices,³⁶ the findings from our qualitative study indicate that, despite encountering personal and workplace-related challenges, autistic individuals feel they possess strengths and skills that employers should recognize and appreciate.

Employment history and career alignment

Our study examined the employment history and workplace barriers faced by autistic adults. The findings revealed that most autistic interns had held various jobs, primarily in blue-collar roles such as restaurant waitstaff or grocery clerk, often part-time, low-paid, and temporary. These experiences align with previous studies showing that autistic adults often engage in low-paying jobs that require minimal skills.³ Several interns and caregivers felt these positions did not align with the interns’ skillsets or career interests. For example, interviewees expressed sentiments such as, “I knew that wasn’t my place” and “I just think those have been mismatches for him.” Some interns sought internships to gain additional skills and work experiences to strengthen their résumés and improve future job prospects. Unlike earlier studies suggesting that autistic adults felt pessimistic about future employment,³ our findings revealed that most of our interns remained optimistic about their future success, despite frustrations in finding ideal jobs. Several expressed long-term goals of pursuing careers that aligned with their passions, such as STEM-related positions like software development.

Challenges and growth opportunities

Our data also indicated that autistic interns encountered challenges in obtaining and maintaining employment, consistent with previous studies.^25,37,38 For instance, Anderson and colleagues³⁸ specifically addressed potential challenges for autistic individuals in obtaining employment, including difficulties succeeding in typical interviews and insufficient accommodations from employers. Autistic interns in our study also mentioned these challenges. The educational background of our intern participants presented one notable growth opportunity. Several participants highlighted the prevalent demand for at least a bachelor’s degree, even in entry-level roles. This challenge predominantly affected interns in our sample, as only four were college graduates. Most interns currently attended college, had some college experience, or held certificates, which potentially did not fully meet the requirements of their desired positions. Previous research emphasizes the significance of a college degree in enhancing employability, especially in STEM-related fields.¹³

Our interns displayed their competence and potential in gaming and technology fields through this summer internship, despite many not having a college degree. This observation encourages us to reconsider how higher education can be more inclusive and supportive of neurodivergent individuals. Rather than viewing the lack of a bachelor’s degree as a deficit, we should focus on transforming higher education settings into neurodiversity-affirming spaces that respect diverse learning styles and provide individualized support.²⁴ Additionally, higher education settings can serve as supportive environments for neurodivergent college students and facilitate conversations on navigating workplace settings and experiences. Instead of attempting to normalize autistic individuals’ traits, professors and administrators should focus on understanding autism and designing research, training, or internship programs that offer diverse learning opportunities.²⁴ By creating neurodiversity-affirming environments that prepare autistic college students for their careers, we can empower them to pursue and succeed in college programs that lead to technology-related careers they are passionate about. Additional studies have highlighted the positive experiences autistic individuals gain through school-based training in high school.²⁵ To better prepare autistic individuals for higher education and employment, both high schools and adult transition programs should provide learning opportunities that offer support in developing the skills needed for independent participation in education and employment.⁶ This is particularly important for those requiring more intensive transition services.

Individual differences in employment challenges and strengths

We also noticed that strengths in some interns were challenges for others, highlighting the presence of individual differences in employment-related issues.³⁹ For example, a few participants expressed frustration with their job search due to a lack of personal connections, motivating them to attend social events to expand their networks. Conversely, other interns emphasized their strength in building rapport. Similarly, some participants mentioned struggling with communication during interviews, but more than one intern identified interview skills as one of their strengths. We encourage employers to recognize the diverse characteristics of autistic individuals and leverage their unique strengths in the workplace. For example, employers should ask autistic employees about their strengths and areas for growth, ensuring that their career development is self-directed rather than based on assumptions. If an autistic adult possesses proficient computer-related skills, the employer should effectively leverage this strength by assigning tasks that align with their expertise. This recommendation aligns with earlier research, which suggests that when autistic adults are supported in utilizing their strengths in their roles, they can excel as employees.²

Workplace support and accommodations

In addition, caregivers and interns in our study voiced concerns about the scarcity of positions that accommodate their needs and enable them to fulfill their potential. This aligns with findings from previous studies. Wilson and colleagues²⁵ highlighted caregivers’ concerns about job accessibility, pointing to unequal employment opportunities for autistic adults. In their study, caregivers mentioned that their autistic children have comorbid diagnoses such as anxiety, which prevented them from receiving social opportunities. Some caregivers in our study mentioned that interns lacked sufficient training or support from their employers, which impeded workplace success. Workplaces often lack individualized support for their autistic employees. Baldwin and colleagues⁹ indicated that employers often fail to provide appropriate accommodations for the individual needs of autistic adults. Moreover, employers and coworkers often lack sufficient knowledge of autism, suggesting that training on autism awareness and neurodiversity for all employees will be necessary to promote an inclusive work environment.¹⁷ Hedley and colleagues³ described a 3-year employment program supporting 11 autistic trainees in transitioning to employment. Despite facing challenges similar to those of our interns, their participants found purpose and improved social relationships with coworker support, positive attitudes, and environmental modifications. Greater understanding and autism awareness from employers and coworkers can foster a sense of belonging for autistic individuals, potentially enhancing organizational commitment and reducing turnover.⁴⁰,⁴¹

Some large technology companies (e.g., Microsoft, SAP, Ernst & Young) have launched hiring programs that provide individualized support and foster a more inclusive workplace.² However, caregivers in our study expressed concerns that some companies still rely on traditional interviews, which might not be well-suited for autistic individuals. This aligns with previous studies noting that traditional interviews are often too rigid, causing stress and anxiety, and are “ineffective in identifying neurodivergent talent.”²⁷(p. 8), ⁴¹^,28 We need to make adjustments to the interview process, such as giving autistic individuals more time to prepare for questions and offering flexibility in how they respond (e.g., allowing written answers instead of verbal responses).^27,28 Fortunately, some companies that have implemented neurodiversity-affirming hiring practices have adjusted their processes. For example, Microsoft now extends its interview process to 5 days instead of 1, giving autistic candidates ample time to showcase their technical and collaborative skills.⁴²

Recognizing and leveraging strengths in employment

We explored participants’ perspectives on the strengths and opportunities for growth in obtaining and maintaining employment. Past research has shown that neurotypical individuals often hold biases, misunderstandings, negative interpretations, and a reluctance to interact with autistic adults in work environments.^16,18 The neurodiversity-affirming approach advocates for recognizing both the strengths and the opportunities for growth for all individuals, including autistic individuals,¹⁸ highlighting the importance of recognizing these strengths and utilizing them effectively in the workplace.¹⁶ In our study, both interns and caregivers identified skills that interns possessed, including persistence, self-determination, flexibility in collaborative work environments, strong written communication skills, and decisiveness, among others. Moreover, several autistic interns emphasized their ability to build personal connections, a factor contributing significantly to their successful employment outcomes. Our findings also highlight the particular strengths of autistic adults in STEM-related fields, consistent with previous research.⁴³ For instance, some interns quickly acquired computer-related skills, while others demonstrated excellent pattern recognition abilities. These insights align with neurodiversity-affirming practices, recognizing the skills and abilities each individual brings to the workplace.³⁶

Study limitations and directions for future research

While our study provides valuable insights, it is not without limitations. First, our sample size was relatively small and lacked diversity, with the majority of participating interns identifying as White, male, and from high-income backgrounds. Future studies should purposely oversample to ensure representation across various dimensions of diversity (e.g., ethnic, racial, gender, language). Second, a few participants left questions on the demographic survey unanswered, restricting our ability to present a comprehensive demographic profile for each participant. We collected demographic information separately from interviews for interns and their caregivers, primarily focusing on interns’ details. Future studies should be more intentional in collecting demographic information. Third, despite efforts to reach all autistic interns engaged in the STEM-related internship (larger study), some interns and their caregivers did not respond to our calls or emails. If we had obtained their perspectives, they could have offered additional insights. Fourth, we did not include matched pair samples in this study; future research should consider whether interns and caregivers agree on interns’ skills and knowledge. Furthermore, future research could include perspectives from internship coaches, coordinators, and other family members to examine the alignment of reported strengths and challenges. Additionally, we focused our study specifically on autistic individuals with STEM backgrounds/interests participating in a technology-focused internship, which potentially limited the generalizability of our findings. To understand autistic adults’ employment outcomes more broadly, future studies should use our protocol to recruit a larger and more diverse sample, extending beyond STEM-related employment. Furthermore, it is important to acknowledge that we conducted these interviews a year after the start of the pandemic, during an unusually challenging time for employment markets. Finally, while we aimed to incorporate neurodiversity-affirming questions into our interview protocol, we asked some of the interview questions in a way that prompted participants to identify barriers or challenges without clarifying whether those challenges related to the society/context or to them as individuals. We could have improved this study by including autistic individuals on the research team. In future studies, we aim to incorporate autistic voices through the co-creation of interview protocols and joint decision-making related to study procedures.

Conclusion

Our study explored the perspectives of caregivers and autistic interns to better understand the employment experiences and career development of autistic interns. Despite encountering limited opportunities, a mismatch between their previous jobs and personal interests, insufficient support, and common employment-related challenges, the interns demonstrated a strong self-worth, along with unique strengths and skills beneficial to their work environments. Importantly, these individuals had clear goals and remained optimistic regarding their future employment prospects.

Footnotes

Acknowledgment

The authors would like to express their gratitude to the autistic interns and their caregivers who generously contributed their time and insights to the study.

Authorship Confirmation Statement

X.J.: Transcribing interviews, coding data, conducting formal analysis, writing the original draft (lead), reviewing, editing, and formatting. S.R.C.: Conceptualizing research aims and interview protocol, collecting data, coding data, conducting formal analysis, reviewing, and editing. S.M.Z.: Conceptualizing research aims and interview protocol, collecting data, coding data, conducting formal analysis, reviewing, and editing. H.B.: Transcribing interviews, coding data, conducting formal analysis, reviewing, and editing. All authors reviewed the article and approved the final version. The article has been submitted solely to Autism in Adulthood.

Author Disclosure Statement

The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest to disclose.

Funding Information

This project received funding from NSF-FW-HTF-RL Award #1928604 (PIs: Leanne Chukoskie and Pamela Cosman).

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