Time to Face It! Facebook Intrusion and the Implications for Romantic Jealousy and Relationship Satisfaction

Abstract

Young people's exposure to social network sites such as Facebook is increasing, along with the potential for such use to complicate romantic relationships. Yet, little is known about the overlaps between the online and offline worlds. We extended previous research by investigating the links between Facebook intrusion, jealousy in romantic relationships, and relationship outcomes in a sample of undergraduates currently in a romantic relationship. A Facebook Intrusion Questionnaire was developed based on key features of technological (behavioral) addictions. An eight-item Facebook Intrusion Questionnaire with a single-factor structure was supported; internal consistency was high. Facebook intrusion was linked to relationship dissatisfaction, via jealous cognitions and surveillance behaviors. The results highlight the possibility of high levels of Facebook intrusion spilling over into romantic relationships, resulting in problems such as jealousy and dissatisfaction. The results have implications for romantic relationships and for Facebook users in general.

Introduction

The introduction of social network sites (SNSs) such as “MySpace” and “Facebook” may be adding to the complexity of romantic relationships worldwide. Facebook is one of the best-known SNSs and provides an online communication medium that is increasingly becoming an integral part of everyday life and a popular way of maintaining relationships (e.g., see refs.^1,2). Given there is considerable potential for individuals to spend excessive amounts of time and/or develop strong attachments to Facebook and research highlighting overlaps between online and offline worlds,³ the impact of such extreme usage patterns on individuals and their romantic relationships needs further exploration.

The emergence in recent years of technological addictions such as those to the Internet, mobile phones, video gaming, and SNSs^4–7 calls for research into the extent to which individuals may be excessively attached to Facebook. Technological addictions are generally considered a subset of behavioral addictions,⁸ characterized by core features of addiction, such as salience, withdrawal, and euphoria.⁹ These addictive behaviors may have reinforcing aspects that can have negative psychological, interpersonal, and work implications.^10–12 According to Wilson et al.,⁴ the reinforcing aspects of SNSs can promote addictive tendencies because of the interactive nature of this form of communication. In general, addictive behaviors continue despite leading to difficulties and may penetrate deeply into an individual's social life.¹³

In line with recent research that points to high levels of involvement in technologies such as mobile phone usage and the Internet,^7,14 the present study draws attention to Facebook intrusion. Specifically, high levels of Facebook intrusion are characterized by an excessive attachment to Facebook, which interferes with day-to-day activities and with relationship functioning. As such, aspects of high Facebook intrusion may include withdrawal (distress related to an inability to access Facebook), relapse and reinstatement (efforts to reduce Facebook use that have been unsuccessful), and euphoria (feeling connected to others when using Facebook).

To date, there has been little research directly investigating Facebook intrusion and its effects. In particular, Facebook intrusion may be associated with negative outcomes such as relationship dissatisfaction. For example, individuals whose lives are disrupted by involvement with Facebook are likely to have difficulty maintaining satisfying romantic relationships. Few studies have investigated the effects of online SNSs by relationship partners on relationship outcomes. However, other literature highlights the deleterious effects of other addictive behaviors (e.g., alcohol dependence) on relationship satisfaction.¹⁵ Based on this research, there is potential for Facebook intrusion to spill over into a person's romantic relationship and contribute to negative relationship experiences and outcomes.

The centrality of jealousy to investigations of Facebook was first highlighted by Muise et al.¹⁶ Specifically, these researchers examined the role of personality and relationship factors in predicting Facebook jealousy and the impact of increased exposure to Facebook on Facebook jealousy. The results indicated that Facebook use predicted Facebook-related jealousy, over and above personality and relationship factors. Overall, the findings by Muise et al.¹⁶ highlighted that the more the time spent on Facebook, the greater likelihood of experiencing Facebook jealousy. In addition, the qualitative data suggested that Facebook jealousy is linked to actual experiences of jealousy in an individual's current offline romantic relationship and a tendency towards Facebook addiction.

On the basis of the research above linking Facebook use and Facebook jealousy, we speculate that individuals who are seriously affected by Facebook intrusion may also experience jealousy in their current romantic relationship because of the propensity of Facebook to disrupt their personal lives and interpersonal relationships. In addition, extrapolating from the evidence for the negative impact of addictive tendencies on romantic relationships,¹⁵ individuals for whom Facebook is intruding in their daily lives may readily perceive relationship threats and respond with jealous thoughts and engagement in surveillance behaviors. In this way, Facebook intrusion may threaten romantic relationships, given that it provides an easily accessible interpersonal communication medium, with an infinite number of potential third-party threats and may even involve monitoring one's partner's activities on Facebook. Hence, Facebook intrusion may translate into hypervigilance for relationship threats, jealousy-related suspicions, and surveillance behaviors in a person's romantic relationship.

Facebook intrusion and romantic jealousy may also share some underlying similarities. For example, people who are highly involved with Facebook are likely to be focused on maintaining these relationships, in much the same way as the individuals who experience romantic jealousy, who are generally interested in maintaining their current relationship and may be fearful of being abandoned.¹⁷ Further, Facebook intrusion is characterized by intrusive thoughts about Facebook (e.g., thoughts related to an inability to access Facebook) and arguments with others may arise as a result of Facebook use. Similarly, romantic jealousy can involve negative thoughts about the partner and the relationship and associated conflict with relationship partners.¹⁸

Overall, research generally supports relationship dissatisfaction as an outcome of jealousy in romantic relationships.^19,20 In addition, previous work highlights the negative impact of an individual's addictive tendencies and behaviors on their intimate relationships.¹⁵ For individuals in romantic relationships, where both partners are members of Facebook, relationship problems such as jealousy and dissatisfaction may emerge, especially when Facebook intrudes a person's daily life. Facebook provides people with a visible interpersonal forum in which the information shared between Facebook friends can be ambiguous and perceived by a relationship partner as threatening. Further, individuals whose lives are disrupted by their use of Facebook may share some similarities with individuals who are likely to experience romantic jealousy. Together, this research and theorizing suggest that Facebook intrusion together with the experience and expression of romantic jealousy may negatively impact on relationship satisfaction.

The present study

We aimed to extend existing research by exploring young people's involvement with Facebook in the context of romantic relationships and the potential for Facebook intrusion to spill over to increased romantic jealousy and relational dissatisfaction.

In developing a measure of Facebook intrusion, we used Brown's¹⁰ framework and incorporated various behavioral addiction components such as cognitive and behavioral salience and withdrawal. In addition, Walsh et al.⁷ have developed a measure of mobile phone involvement; we extrapolate from their work by measuring Facebook intrusion in a similar way. We included cognitive and surveillance behaviors as measures of romantic jealousy and four control variables (gender, age, length of time as a member of Facebook, and relationship length). We expected that Facebook intrusion would be associated with relational dissatisfaction, via the experience of jealous thoughts and involvement in surveillance behaviors.

Methods

Participants

A total of 342 undergraduate students from an Australian university were recruited using the school of psychology's first-year participant pool, for which they received partial course credit. Between 90 and 95 percent of participants and their partners were Facebook members. All participants (110 men and 195 women) completed an online questionnaire and were aged between 18 and 25 years (mean=19.75, standard deviation=1.79). The mean length of the participants' current relationship was 16.44 months (standard deviation=13.79), and ranged from 2 months to 6 years. The majority of participants were dating (86.9 percent) and 13.1 percent were living together or married.

Measures

Participants were asked to report their time spent on Facebook during a week. In addition, they also completed questionnaires measuring Facebook intrusion, romantic jealousy, and relationship satisfaction.

Facebook Intrusion Questionnaire

An eight-item measure of Facebook intrusion was developed based on Brown's¹⁰ behavioral addiction components and the mobile phone involvement questionnaire by Walsh et al.⁷ Responses were reported on a seven-point scale, ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree) and summed to indicate higher levels of intrusion. A sample item is “I often think about Facebook when I am not using it.”

An initial principal components analysis with oblique (Direct Oblimin) rotation was used to test the factor structure of the Facebook Intrusion Questionnaire (FIQ). Missing-values analyses indicated that no more than 5 percent of cases were missing; therefore, the pairwise correlation matrix was analyzed. No univariate or multivariate outliers were detected and the data were normally distributed. One component was identified, accounting for 49.23 percent of the variance. Item loadings, means, and standard deviations are presented in Table 1. Internal consistency was high (α=0.85). The mean score on the FIQ was 25.89 (scores ranged from 8 to 53), indicating moderate levels of Facebook intrusion.

Table 1.

Item Means, Standard Deviations, and Component Loadings for the Facebook Intrusion Questionnaire

Items	Mean	Standard deviation	Component loadings
1. I often think about Facebook when I am not using it (cognitive salience)	2.57	1.62	0.75
2. I often use Facebook for no particular reason (behavioral salience)	4.78	1.85	0.64
3. Arguments have arisen with others because of my Facebook use (interpersonal conflict)	2.15	1.62	0.49
4. I interrupt whatever else I am doing when I feel the need to access Facebook (conflict with other activities)	2.94	1.97	0.78
5. I feel connected to others when I use Facebook (euphoria)	4.52	1.67	0.63
6. I lose track of how much I am using Facebook (loss of control)	4.01	2.03	0.80
7. The thought of not being able to access Facebook makes me feel distressed (withdrawal)	2.32	1.59	0.75
8. I have been unable to reduce my Facebook use (relapse and reinstatement)	2.59	1.74	0.72

Romantic jealousy

Cognitive jealousy and surveillance behaviors were measured using the Short-Form Multidimensional Jealousy Scale.²¹ Five items measure cognitive jealousy (α=0.87), assessing the extent to which a person experiences suspicions regarding their partner, and a sample item is “I suspect that X may be attracted to someone else.” The behavioral scale examines how frequently a person engages in surveillance behaviors. A sample item is “I call X unexpectedly, just to see if he or she is there.” Cronbach's alpha was 0.81. All responses were summed to indicate greater levels of romantic jealousy.

Relational satisfaction

Current relationship satisfaction was measured based on the questionnaire assessing investment model constructs.²² Five items comprised the scale, ranging from 0 (do not agree at all) to 8 (agree completely). A sample item is “I feel satisfied with our relationship.” Higher scores indicate greater satisfaction (α=0.92).

Results

The means, standard deviations, and intercorrelations for the study are presented in Table 2. Prior to the main analyses, the data were inspected for outliers. There were some outliers detected on the amount of time spent on Facebook; however, the substantive results did not change when they were removed, and therefore, we retained all responses on this measure. Overall, the amount of time spent on Facebook was not related to the dependent variable–relationship satisfaction (see Table 2); thus, the criteria for performing mediation analyses were not fulfilled.²³ An extreme or high level of involvement in technology captures broader aspects of behavior rather than level of use.²⁴ Hence, these results provide support for the role of Facebook intrusion rather than time spent or frequency of access as an important factor in the context of romantic relationships. More specifically, time spent on Facebook may increase the chance a relationship partner is subjected to threat by a third party, and an excessive attachment to Facebook (Facebook intrusion) is considered more harmful; that is, Facebook intrusion is more likely to interrupt a person's daily tasks and negatively influence relationship outcomes such as jealousy and dissatisfaction.

Table 2.

Correlations, Means, Range, and Standard Deviations Among Variables

Variables	Mean	Standard deviation	Range	1	2	3	4	5
1. Time spent (hours per week)	6.13	7.43	0.2–45	1
2. Facebook intrusion	25.89	9.88	8–53	0.38^***	1
3. Cognitive jealousy	10.05	5.05	5–30	0.12^*	0.18^**	1
4. Surveillance behaviors	14.35	6.27	6–34	0.15^*	0.35^***	0.46^***	1
5. Satisfaction	31.85	7.58	8–40	−0.01	−0.12^*	−0.36^***	−0.32^***	1

p<0.05; **p<0.01; ***p<0.001.

To test and establish mediation using relationship satisfaction as the dependent variable, the following conditions were met using regression analyses in accordance with Baron and Kenny's²³ criteria: Facebook intrusion was associated with cognitive jealousy and surveillance behaviors; Facebook intrusion was related to relationship dissatisfaction, and cognitive jealousy and surveillance behaviors were linked to relationship dissatisfaction. See Table 2 for a summary of the bivariate correlations.

Next, a hierarchical regression analysis was conducted to examine whether romantic jealousy dimensions mediated the links between Facebook intrusion and relational satisfaction. The predictors were mean centered, to reduce the probability of multicollinearity. Age, gender, length of the current relationship, the length of time individuals had been a member of Facebook, and Facebook intrusion were entered at Step 1. Cognitive jealousy and surveillance behaviors were entered at Step 2. At Step 1, approximately 10.2 percent of the variance in relational dissatisfaction was accounted for by the five predictors (F(5, 289)=6.55, p<0.001); age, gender, and Facebook intrusion were significant predictors at this step.* As shown in Table 3, the Step 2 variables significantly improved prediction of relational dissatisfaction over the control variables (which included Facebook intrusion), accounting for an additional 14 percent of the variance in relational dissatisfaction (F(2, 287)=26.57, p<0.001). Specifically, cognitive jealousy (β=−0.26, p<.001) and surveillance behaviors (β=−0.20, p<0.01) were negatively associated with relational satisfaction, whereas Facebook intrusion was no longer negatively associated with relationship satisfaction (β=−0.07, ns). These analyses were repeated separately for males and females; the overall pattern of results was the same.

Table 3.

Summary of Beta-Weights for Prediction of Relationship Satisfaction

Dependent variable	Relationship satisfaction
Independent variables	Step 1	Step 2
Age	−0.21^**	−0.22^**
Gender	0.21^***	0.20^***
Relationship length	0.08	0.11
Length of Facebook membership	0.05	0.06
Facebook intrusion	−0.20^***	−0.07
Cognitive jealousy	—	−0.26^***
Surveillance behaviors	—	−0.20^**

p<0.01; ***p<0.001.

Sobel tests were conducted to test cognitive jealousy and surveillance behaviors as mediators between Facebook intrusion and relationship dissatisfaction. The indirect effects of Facebook intrusion on relational dissatisfaction via cognitive jealousy (t=−2.75, p<0.01) and surveillance behaviors (t=−2.84, p<0.01) were significant. Hence, the results indicate that the association between Facebook intrusion and relationship dissatisfaction is fully mediated by cognitive jealousy and surveillance behaviors.

Discussion

The aim of the study was to explore the extent to which an individual's involvement with Facebook impacts their relationship satisfaction, via the experience and expression of romantic jealousy. Thus, this study required the development of a measure of Facebook intrusion (FIQ). Preliminary evidence supported the eight-item unidimensional FIQ. Specifically, items reflected core elements of addictive tendencies and behaviors, and internal consistency was high. In addition, Facebook intrusion was moderately associated with time spent on Facebook.

In line with predictions, Facebook intrusion was linked to relationship dissatisfaction via experiences of cognitive jealousy and surveillance behaviors. That is, Facebook intrusion appears only to negatively impact on relationship satisfaction through experiences of romantic jealousy. Our findings build on previous research that has pointed to Facebook as an environment that promotes jealousy-related feelings and behaviors¹⁶ and evidence showing that addictive behaviors are associated with negative relationship outcomes.¹⁵

Because of the interpersonal nature of Facebook, individuals highly involved with this form of social networking are also likely to be people whose romantic relationships are also important to them. Hence, the tendency for Facebook to impinge on people's lives, together with the infinite number of available third-party threats, encourages the experience of jealous thoughts and engagement in surveillance behaviors, resulting in dissatisfying romantic relationships. In addition, Facebook intrusion shares some similarities with romantic jealousy (i.e., both involve cognitive components and behavioral responses such as conflict with people or partners); our results support these overlaps and highlight online and offline experiences as intertwined. Further, our results indicate that individuals who are more highly involved with Facebook may have relationship difficulties such as jealousy and dissatisfaction. This finding adds to previous research that has shown addictive behaviors to impact negatively on romantic relationships.¹⁵

The results of this study suggest that young people's levels of Facebook intrusion can impact their romantic relationships negatively. As participants scored only moderately high on the measure of Facebook intrusion, future studies could investigate these links in a sample of participants who report more extreme levels of intrusion by Facebook. As such, researchers could consider Facebook intrusion as including more pathological levels, as it appears that some people are exhibiting an excessive attachment to Facebook, in line with definitions of behavioral addictions.¹² We also recommend that further studies examine links between Facebook intrusion and other negative consequences. For instance, research assessing the extent to which Facebook intrusion causes personal distress and disruptions to daily functioning is needed.

According to our findings, the amount of time spent on Facebook differs from Facebook intrusion based on the moderate association between these two constructs (r=0.38), and the differences in associations between Facebook intrusion and time spent on Facebook with relationship satisfaction. Although individuals may spend significant amounts of time lurking on Facebook, these behaviors do not adequately reflect the extent to which individuals may be excessively involved with Facebook and/or the extent to which Facebook intrudes on their lives. The findings in the present study suggest that Facebook intrusion shares commonalities with behavioral addictions and represents a separate construct from the amount of time individuals spend on Facebook.

Overall, the links between Facebook intrusion, romantic jealousy, and relationship dissatisfaction are concerning for young adults attempting to maintain satisfying intimate relationships. Although feelings of social connection may enhance psychological wellbeing,²⁵ there are costs to individuals and their intimate relationships, if they develop a reliance on Facebook for these positive outcomes. In addition, as more adults, many of whom are likely to have long-term, committed relationships (perhaps with children) outside the university context, enter the world of Facebook, there is an increasing possibility that these relationships may become strained and influenced by jealousy and dissatisfaction. Future studies could explore the extent to which a relationship partner's low or high involvement with Facebook buffers against or increases the impact of such use on their romantic relationships.

The present study may have implications for practitioners. Consistent with treatment approaches to other types of excessive behaviors,⁶ we recommend that clinicians should ask questions relating to online use of social networking sites. Further, the development of the FIQ may provide clinicians with an assessment tool to help to explore this phenomenon in clinical practice.

This study is the first to investigate the impact of Facebook intrusion and romantic jealousy on relationship satisfaction, using a large sample of individuals in romantic relationships. However, the present study has some limitations. Specifically, the generalizability of the results is limited because of the university sample; as previously mentioned, future research could study adults in romantic relationships outside of this context. Further study of Facebook intrusion in younger individuals is also needed, given that these individuals have grown up with advanced online technologies. Given the correlational nature of these data, longitudinal studies could be conducted to explore how Facebook intrusion develops and is managed over time. In addition, studies could look at the impact of an individual's level of Facebook intrusion on the relationship partner's level of satisfaction. Perhaps the visibility of social networks, especially the partner's social networks keeps people highly involved with Facebook.

At present, the underlying mechanisms involved in the association between Facebook intrusion and cognitive jealousy and surveillance behaviors need further consideration. Also, further research is required to investigate the correlates of Facebook intrusion such as Facebook jealousy and attachment anxiety, given that we know that attachment anxiety has strong links to romantic jealousy.¹⁷ Further, characteristics of attachment anxiety appear to mirror addictive tendencies toward Facebook (e.g., possible fear of abandonment and sensitivity to rejection from others) and together may contribute to romantic jealousy.

In summary, Facebook intrusion is a relatively new phenomenon that appears to result in relationship dissatisfaction if individuals also experience jealousy in their romantic relationships. The FIQ provides one time-efficient method of gathering information related to Facebook intrusion that may be useful in clinical practice. The potential implications of the results of the present study are extensive, particularly for those in romantic relationships and given that the majority of young people are Facebook members.

Footnotes

Disclosure Statement

The authors have no conflicts of interest.

*

Although there appears to be wide variability in relationship length, this variable was not a significant predictor of relationship satisfaction at either step.

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