Predicting Adolescents' Disclosure of Personal Information in Exchange for Commercial Incentives: An Application of an Extended Theory of Planned Behavior

Abstract

This study adopts a global theoretical framework to predict adolescents' disclosure of personal information in exchange for incentives offered by commercial Websites. The study postulates and tests the validity of a model based on the theory of planned behavior (TPB), including antecedent factors of attitude and perceived behavioral control (PBC). A survey was conducted among 1,042 respondents. Results from SEM analyses show that the hypothesized model fits the empirical data well. The model accounts for 61.9 percent of the variance in adolescents' intention to disclose and 43.7 percent of the variance in self-reported disclosure. Perceived social pressure exerted by significant others (subjective norm) is the most important TPB factor in predicting intention to disclose personal information in exchange for incentives. This finding suggests that in discussions of adolescents' information privacy, the importance of social factors outweighs the individually oriented TPB factors of attitude and PBC. Moreover, privacy concern and trust propensity are significant predictors of respondents' attitudes toward online disclosure in exchange for commercial incentives, whereas the frequency of Internet use significantly affects their level of PBC.

Introduction

Teenagers constitute a retail demographic that shares a great interest in new technologies.¹ Most teen-oriented Websites are advertising-funded, while the share of noncommercial Websites has decreased.² As a result, teenagers are heavily exposed to both advertising and proliferation of direct sales online.³ Moreover, online venues are also used strategically to collect personal information. Research has shown that 87 percent of Websites targeting children and adolescents process personal data.⁴ Information collected from these young users can subsequently be used to inspire marketing campaigns or to be sold to other commercial organizations. To encourage information disclosure, marketeers have developed strategies for reducing the subjective cost of self-disclosure. One common technique used to elicit personal data disclosure involves offering some type of incentive (e.g., free products and discounts, access to online content).³ As suggested by Premazzi et al.,⁵ “people may be willing to give up a degree of privacy if they feel they get something in exchange.” Research has demonstrated that teenagers have more difficulty than adults in resisting the temptation to disclose their information in situations in which incentives are offered.⁶ Moreover, it has been shown that young adolescents are less concerned about possible risks related to disclosure for marketing purposes. Another study⁷ reports that the likelihood that teenagers will disclose information increases with the value of the gift, while the willingness of adults to provide information remains relatively stable.

The extensive data requests toward teenagers, combined with the ease with which data are acquired and disseminated for marketing purposes, has yielded increasing concerns about minors' disclosure to e-service providers.^8–10 In this context, the concept of information privacy emerges. Westin defines information privacy as “the claim of individuals, groups, or institutions to determine for themselves when, how, and to what extent information about themselves is communicated to others.”¹¹ In addition to the possibilities that users have for applying privacy settings to control the extent to which disclosed personal information is made public (e.g., on social network sites [SNS]), information privacy in the online context refers also to the decisions of individual users regarding whether to divulge personal information when a commercial Website makes a request to do so.

As observed by some scholars, most studies focusing on the online privacy of adolescents adopt a predominantly empirical perspective.^8,12 Several authors, however, have tried to explain the ways in which teenagers deal with information privacy from a more theoretical viewpoint. For example, Youn¹⁰ demonstrates the applicability of Rogers' protection motivation theory to adolescents' adoption of privacy-protective behaviors. One study, involving an online survey, applies the theory of planned behavior (TPB) to predict the adoption of privacy protection strategies by college students.¹² The three TPB constructs accounted for 21 percent of variance in intention and 23 percent of variance in the adoption of privacy-protective strategies.

The present study aims to verify whether the TPB applies to the disclosure aspect of information privacy. According to the TPB, behavior is directly determined by behavioral intentions. Intention is subsequently determined by attitude (a positive or negative evaluation of the behavior¹³), subjective norm (SN) (perceived social pressure to perform the behavior¹³), and perceived behavioral control (PBC) (the perceived ease or difficulty that the individual addresses to perform the behavior¹³). Literature focusing on these TPB components typically reports relationships in which more favorable attitudes and subjective norms toward a specific behavior and greater PBC are associated with stronger motivation to perform this behavior.¹³ In this study, we test the applicability of this TPB-model to disclosure of information by teenagers in response to online data requests that offer incentives.

Hypotheses

We derive eight hypotheses from the literature (see Fig. 1). In the following section, we elaborate on how we inferred the hypotheses for the present study.

FIG. 1.

Proposed model of theory of planned behavior (TPB) applied to adolescents' self-reported disclosure in exchange for commercial incentives.

TPB factors

Attitude

Previous research on the attitudes of adolescents regarding online privacy threats has revealed that they are more positive than adults are toward data-processing activities, when commercial incentives are offered.⁷ Similarly, a study¹⁴ examining adolescents' disclosure reports that older adolescents are more willing to provide their personal information if they assess the perceived benefits as exceeding the perceived costs related to disclosure. Individuals who view invasions of information privacy online as adverse are less inclined to carry out acts that pose threats in this regard.¹⁵ Another study reports a positive relation between respondents' attitudes toward protecting their information privacy and their actual intention to do this.¹⁶ Based on these findings, we hypothesize the following:

H1: There is a positive relation between adolescents' attitude toward disclosure of personal information and their intention to disclose in exchange for incentives.

Subjective norm

People develop perceptions of the normative framework within a society through significant referents in their lives¹⁷ (e.g., family members, friends, and educators).¹⁸ Research has demonstrated that adolescents coordinate their behaviors, both online and offline, in such a way that they achieve congruence with the social pressure exerted by significant others. For example, Livingstone¹⁹ states that teenagers' activities on social network sites are influenced by peer norms. Lewis et al.²⁰ found that students were more likely to restrict access to their profile pages if the profiles of peers were closed as well. They conclude that the online privacy behavior is an upshot of both social influences and positive incentives. In the present study, we therefore expect the following:

H2: Adolescents whose significant others approve more strongly of the disclosure of their personal information will be more motivated to disclose their personal information in exchange for incentives.

Perceived behavioral control

The PBC concept has two dimensions²¹ of control: internal (abilities, skills, and confidence) and external (resources, barriers, and dependence on others). With regard to internal control, many studies applying the TPB report that individuals who have high confidence in their ability to perform a behavior are more motivated to carry out the behavior. When, however, respondents feel that they have complete internal control over the behavior, the influence of PBC is likely to decline.¹³ The focal behavior of this study—disclosing personal information in exchange for commercial incentives—should pose few, if any, difficulties for adolescents because of their skills in using information and communication technologies. As noted by Ajzen,¹³ PBC is compatible with Bandura's notion of self-efficacy, which is defined as “judgments of how well one can execute courses of action required to deal with prospective situations.”²² In the context of online privacy, LaRose and Riffon¹⁶ found no direct relationship between Internet users' privacy self-efficacy and their intention to disclose personal information. The following is predicted in the present study:

H3a: There is no significant relationship between PBC and adolescents' willingness to disclose personal data in exchange for commercial incentives

With regard to external control, PBC is also posited to predict behavior, because the degree of success with which this behaviour is carried out is partially dependent on the presence of nonmotivational factors.¹³ Disclosing personal information in exchange for a commercial incentive is a behavior that only can be performed when individuals have the opportunity to do this (e.g., Internet access; exposure to commercial data requests online). Moreover, research²³ revealed a direct positive relationship between PBC and respondents' adoption of privacy-protective behaviors. Therefore, we expect the following:

H3b: There is a positive relationship between PBC and adolescents' self-reported disclosure of personal information in exchange for commercial incentives.

Intention

Previous research has established an association between intention to use and actual usage of new technology.^24,25 Except with regard to behaviors that are largely out of an individual's behavioral control, the intention to perform a particular behavior is the strongest predictor of its actual performance.¹³ We expect the following:

H4: Intention to disclose personal information in exchange for commercial incentives will be positively related to self-reported disclosure.

Antecedents of attitude

Privacy concern

Privacy concern can be defined as the “Internet customer's concern for controlling the acquisition and subsequent use of the information that is generated on him or acquired on the Internet.”²⁶ Several studies have revealed a negative relationship between privacy concern and the intentions of both adolescents^14,27 and adults^28,29 to disclose personal data to online marketers. No direct relationship, however, between privacy concern and intention is expected in our study, as the TPB proposes that additional factors can only indirectly influence behavior, because their influence is mediated by attitude, subjective norm, or PBC.³⁰ In this study, we predict the following:

H5: Privacy concerns are negatively associated with adolescents' attitudes toward disclosing personal data in exchange for commercial incentives.

Trust propensity

Personal information disclosure for commercial purposes is conducted within a context of temporal and spatial separation between Internet users and commercial organizations. Situations can arise in which Internet users are unsure about what commercial Websites will do with their personal information.⁵ Bearing this in mind, Youn¹⁰ suggests that it might be interesting for future research models to include consumer traits such as trust propensity. Mayer et al.³¹ define this construct as a general willingness to trust others.

In this study, we expect the following:

H6: Adolescents' propensity to trust will be positively related to their attitude toward disclosure in exchange for commercial incentives.

Privacy violation experience

Recent research found that 9 percent of European youth reported a misuse of their personal information on the Internet during the last 12 months.³² Strater and Lipford³³ report that respondents reporting events about intrusive contacts made on SNS were more likely to give thorough consideration to their online disclosure and the level of access allowed to profile data. Such negative experiences could influence young people's attitudes toward disclosing personal information online.

We expect the following:

H7: Adolescents who have experienced online privacy violations will share a more negative attitude toward disclosing personal information.

Antecedent of PBC

Frequency of Internet use

Some studies report a positive relationship between online experience and privacy concern.³⁴ Other studies have shown that Internet users with more experience demonstrated a greater desire to control personal information.^35,36 Lewis et al.²⁰ report that more intensive Internet users are more likely to have private profile pages on SNS. There are additional reasons to expect that the frequency of Internet use will influence PBC. In a study on SNS self-disclosure, Trepte and Reinecke³⁷ report that frequent SNS users were more willing to disclose personal information. Within online commercial contexts, frequent Internet users could thus be more readily inclined to disclose personal data, as they are more frequently confronted with data requests from online marketers offering possible rewards for entrusting personal details.

We therefore expect the following:

H8: High frequency of Internet use will be positively associated with PBC.

Method

Participants

Self-administered anonymous questionnaires, containing all variables involved in the research model of the present study, were completed by 1,042 respondents (519 male respondents and 523 female respondents) in January 2010. From an exhaustive list of schools obtained from the Flemish Ministry of Education, we selected 6 schools from each Flemish province, resulting in a total selection of 30 schools. We used the schooling type as an additional sample criterion, to guarantee the equal representation of students from all three levels of education in Flanders. Within each school, one class in each of the three grades was selected to participate in the study to guarantee the equal representation of students in various age categories. All pupils from a selected class were asked for their permission to participate in the survey study. Participants' ages ranged between 12 and 18 years (M_age=15.35; SD=1.75).

Instruments

We developed a questionnaire containing scales that have been validated in previous research testing the TPB. We applied these measures to examine adolescents' disclosure of personal information. All TPB items were assessed using 6-point Likert-scales with item responses ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 6 (strongly agree), with the exception of attitude as described in Table 1.

Table 1.

Descriptives of the Theory of Planned Behavior Variables

	Cronbach's α	Mean	SD	Range
Attitude	0.84
1. Disadvantageous–advantageous		2.79	1.61	1–7
2. Not pleasant–pleasant		3.09	1.71	1–7
3. Bad–good		2.79	1.60	1–7
4. A stupid idea–a good idea		2.51	1.55	1–7
5. Harmful–harmless		3.03	1.70	1–7
SN	0.81
1. Significant others would disclose personal information in exchange for an incentive.		2.62	1.30	1–6
2. Significant others think I should disclose personal information in exchange for an incentive.		2.20	1.26	1–6
3. Significant others would approve of me disclosing personal information in exchange for an incentive.		2.25	1.31	1–6
PBC	0.79
1. Disclosing personal information in exchange for an incentive is something I'm capable of.		4.17	1.47	1–6
2. I have enough skills to dislose my personal information in exchange for an incentive.		4.09	1.51	1–6
3. I have the resources to disclose my personal information in exchange for an incentive.		4.73	1.46	1–6
Intention	0.91
1. I am planning to disclose personal information in exchange for a commercial incentive.		2.07	1.22	1–6
2. I want to disclose personal information in exchange for a commercial incentive.		2.00	1.20	1–6
3. It is my intention to disclose personal information in exchange for a commercial incentive.		1.95	1.14	1–6
Self-reported disclosure	NA
Disclosing personal information in exchange for an incentive is something I do…(never-very often)		1.89	0.962	1–6

PBC, perceived behavioral control; SN, subjective norm.

Privacy concern

A scale developed by Smith, Milberg, and Burke³⁸ was adopted to measure privacy concern using six items measured on a 6-point Likert-scale (e.g., I am concerned about organizations using my personal data; totally disagree–totally agree). High scores correspond to high levels of privacy concern. The scale was reliable (α=0.85).

Privacy violation experience

This construct was measured using two items rated along a dichotomous scale (e.g., I have already experienced a misuse of personal data; yes–no). Low scores on these items suggest that the respondent has already experienced a certain degree of privacy violation.

Trust propensity

The measurement of trust propensity was based on the 6-item adaptation³⁹ of Rotter's 25-item trust propensity scale measured on six points (e.g., I'm inclined to trust others, even if I don't know them; totally disagree–totally agree). High scores indicate that respondents are more inclined to trust others in general. The scale showed internal consistency (α=0.85).

Data analysis

To investigate the hypothesized relationships among the TPB constructs, structural equation modeling was applied to the collected data using Mplus 6.⁴⁰

Results

Four out of 10 respondents (41.1 percent; n=430) indicate that they never disclose personal information in exchange for commercial incentives. One out of three teenagers (35.3 percent; n=370) report that they seldom disclose information. About one in five (17.5 percent; n=183) disclose sometimes, while about one out of 20 respondents divulges on a somewhat regular basis (5.4 percent; 3.5 percent [n=37] of respondents disclose regularly, 1.1 percent [n=11] often, and 0.7 percent [n=7] very often).

Measurement model

The measurement model provides a good fit for the data (see Fig. 2). All variables were treated as latent constructs, with exception of the single-item measures. Table 2 displays the correlations between the latent constructs. All factor loadings are significant and above 0.499 (see Table 3).

FIG. 2.

Model of the TPB applied to adolescents' self reported disclosure in exchange for commerical incentives. ***p<0.001.

Table 2.

Correlations Between Latent Constructs

Measure	1	2	3	4	5	6	7
1. Attitude	—
2. Subjective norm	0.582	—
3. PBC	0.255	0.236	—
4. Privacy violation experience	−0.058	−0.121	−0.046	—
5. Privacy concern	−0.348	−0.296	−0.023	0.075	—
6. Trust propensity	0.352	0.302	0.119	−0.019	−0.279	—
7. Intention	0.555	0.762	0.239	−0.095	−0.294	0.305	—

n=1,042.

Table 3.

Unstandardized and Standardized Parameter Estimates

	Results for measurement model
Observed variable	Latent construct	β	B	Two-tailed p-value
Att_item1	Attitude	0.739	1.000
Att_item2	Attitude	0.709	0.961	0.000
Att_item3	Attitude	0.850	1.152	0.000
Att_item4	Attitude	0.792	1.073	0.000
Att_item5	Attitude	0.545	0.739	0.000
SN_item1	Subjective norm	0.683	1.000
SN_item2	Subjective norm	0.820	1.201	0.000
SN_item3	Subjective norm	0.799	1.165	0.000
PB_item1	PBC	0.762	1.000
PB_item2	PBC	0.872	1.145	0.000
PB_item3	PBC	0.626	0.822	0.000
Intent_item1	Intention	0.893	1.000
Intent_item2	Intention	0.920	1.033	0.000
Intent_item3	Intention	0.838	0.940	0.000
Privacyviol_item1	Privacy violation experience	0.772	1.000
Privacyviol_item2	Privacy violation experience	0.499	0.645	0.000
Trustprop_item1	Trust propensity	0.701	1.000
Trustprop_item2	Trust propensity	0.646	0.922	0.000
Trustprop_item3	Trust propensity	0.866	1.238	0.000
Trustprop_item4	Trust propensity	0.827	1.177	0.000
PrivacyConcem_item1	Privacy concern	0.707	1.000
PrivacyConcern_item2	Privacy concern	0.713	1.010	0.000
PrivacyConcern_item3	Privacy concern	0.738	1.046	0.000
PrivacyConcern_item4	Privacy concern	0.754	1.065	0.000
PrivacyConcern_item5	Privacy concern	0.679	0.963	0.000
PrivacyConcern_item6	Privacy concern	0.594	0.841	0.000

	Results for structural model
Path	β	B	Two-tailed p-value
Privacy concern to attitude	−0.280	−0.293	0.000
Privacy violation experience to attitude	−0.027	−0.026	0.502
Trust propensity to attitude	0.257	0.272	0.000
Online frequency to PBC	0.223	0.170	0.000
Attitude to intention	0.178	0.214	0.000
Subjective norm to intention	0.659	0.859	0.000
PBC to intention	0.040	0.047	0.142
Intention to self-reported disclosure	0.615	0.665	0.000
PBC to self-reported disclosure	0.140	0.176	0.000

Structural model

Figure 2 presents the model, including the standardized regression coefficients yielded by the SEM analyses. All fit indices indicate a good fit for the model, except for χ² due to its sample size sensitivity. Our analyses reveal that the three TPB factors explain 61.9 percent of the variance in adolescents' intention to disclose personal information in exchange for commercial incentives. Moreover, intention and PBC jointly account for 43.7 percent of the variance in self-reported disclosure behavior.

As shown in Table 3, our analyses reveal that the most important predictor of adolescents' disclosure in exchange for commercial incentives is behavioral intention (β=0.61, p<0.001) (H4). Furthermore, PBC with regard to disclosing personal information is a significant predictor of self-reported disclosure (β=0.14, p<0.001) (H3b). According to our analyses, an individual's intent to disclose is influenced primarily by a subjective norm (β=0.66, p<0.001) (H2) and subsequently by attitude (β=0.18, p<0.001) (H1), although no significant path is found between PBC and intention (β=0.04, p=0.142) (H3a). Our analyses further indicate a negative association between privacy concern and adolescents' attitude toward disclosure (β=−0.28, p<0.001) (H5). As predicted by H6, respondents' trust propensity is positively related with attitude (β=0.26, p<0.001). Contrary to expectations, no significant relation (β=−0.03, p=0.502) is found between privacy violation experience and attitude, thereby rejecting H7. Finally, we find a positive relationship (β=0.22, p<0.001) between online frequency and adolescents' PBC with regard to disclosing information (H8).

Discussion

By offering a global theoretical framework for explaining the ways in which adolescents deal with personal information disclosure in online commercial settings, the outcomes of this study could be especially fruitful for consumer educators and policymakers seeking to design privacy educational initiatives to foster online privacy awareness among teenagers. The present study reveals that subjective norm is the most important predictor of teenagers' intention to disclose personal information on commercial Websites. This finding suggests that the importance of social factors outweighs individually oriented attitudinal factors. Instead of following their own subjective evaluations in coping with information privacy, teenagers are more strongly influenced by the social pressure they anticipate from significant others (e.g., peers, siblings, parents, teachers, and relatives). Our results suggest that policymakers interested in protecting teenagers' online personal information should focus their attention to subjective norm as a primary target of intervention. The important role of subjective norm aligns with literature. Ling and Ytrri⁴¹ suggest that young people are more susceptible to external and interpersonal influences, because they are at an age stage in which their social development and learning are more dynamic than in adulthood. Adolescence is also the life stage in which young people start to spend more time outside the family context, which increases the exposure to the opinions and the pressure exerted by others, not only peers but also adults.⁴²

As expected, we found no significant relationship between PBC and intention to disclose personal information. One possible explanation is that, as suggested earlier in this article, young people may feel such high levels of internal control, that this does not increase their motivation to disclose personal information in exchange for incentives. A direct positive relationship however was found between PBC and disclosure. This indicates that adolescents' information disclosure is partially dependent on the available opportunities to perform this behavior.

Footnotes

Author Disclosure Statement

No competing financial interests exist.

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