Mobile Phone Use,Emotion Regulation,and Well-Being

Abstract

This study examined the use of mobile phones to regulate negative emotions, considering both the role of different aspects of phone use and individual differences in emotion regulation strategies. A total of 287 young adult smartphone users completed an online survey that addressed use of mobile phones for negative emotion regulation. They responded to a phone loss scenario by rating how much they would miss various uses/functions of the phone (which could be involved in emotion regulation). Habitual use of reappraisal to regulate emotion was associated with missing both interpersonal contact and social support, but not access to entertainment/information. In contrast, habitual use of emotion suppression was associated only with missing entertainment/information content. Regulating negative emotions via mobile phone was associated with missing all three uses/functions of the phone, but perception that the phone was effective in remediating negative emotion was associated only with missing social support. Well-being was related to greater use and perceived effectiveness of the mobile phone for emotion regulation. Overall, this study demonstrates that mobile phones can yield psychological benefits, depending on how they are used. Findings suggest that using the phone for social support is most likely to lead to effective remediation of negative emotion. Interpretations and implications of the findings are discussed.

Introduction

The mobile phone has been described as a type of “affective technology” that is deeply connected to the emotional lives of users,^1,2 and as “a potential powerful tool for cyber-psychology.”³^(p124) Although mobile phones can facilitate emotion regulation in diverse ways, little research has explicitly examined their use to cope with stress or regulate emotion. Moreover, people likely vary in the aspects of phone use that they find most psychologically beneficial. Mobile phones provide direct and immediate access to others via text, voice calls, and social media.^4,5 They also offer a wide range of content and activities that may not involve social interaction, such as music, games, news and information, videos, and innumerable apps.⁶ This study examines use of mobile phones to regulate negative emotions, considering both the role of different aspects of phone use and individual differences in habitual emotion regulation strategies.

Emotional outcomes of mobile phone use

Mobile phones are heavily used to communicate with others, especially those within established networks such as family and friends. The ability to contact others or seek social support at any moment has implications for emotion regulation. The use of mobile phones to connect with friends and family can satisfy interpersonal needs such as affection and inclusion, and can facilitate access to companionship and support.^5,7,8 Social media, such as Facebook and Twitter, can be accessed via mobile phone, and are used for some of the same reasons as calls and texting, such as seeking social connection.^9–11 Social media also can facilitate social sharing (e.g., self-disclosure via status updates). However, evidence indicates that being always connected and reachable by others can be a source of stress.¹²

Little research has directly addressed communication via mobile phones for emotion regulation. One study that has done so focused on texting,¹³ and found that people higher in mindfulness were less likely to use texting to reduce unpleasant emotions.

In addition to offering interpersonal contact and social support for emotion regulation, mobile phones offer instantaneous access to information and entertainment content. Mood management theory¹⁴ contends that people select media content in an effort to regulate their affective states, or more specifically to reduce negative moods and achieve or maintain positive moods and optimum arousal. Extensive research has documented that people use media to regulate their emotions and mood states.¹⁵

Listening to music is one facet of mobile phone use that has been associated with managing negative emotions.¹⁶ Music has long been known to influence moods, and much evidence shows that people use music in an effort to improve mood or cope with negative emotions. For example, Katz et al.¹⁷ reported evidence from focus groups that listening to music via mobile phones and iPods can alter emotional experiences by offering a respite from a stressful environment and reducing boredom. Mobile games also can have positive emotional consequences for users.^18,19 Research has shown that players use games as a way to escape from problems, help cope with life stressors, and also to seek social support.²⁰ Social networking apps (e.g., Facebook) are used not only for interpersonal communication but also for purposes such as diversion and entertainment, in part through access to content.^10,11 Studies have also examined emotional benefits of using other kinds of content, such as multimedia narratives, on mobile phones.^3,21

Emotion regulation processes

The literature on emotion regulation can provide insight regarding how mobile phones may be used to manage moods and emotions.²² One of the most widely studied emotion regulation strategies involves cognitive change, or altering appraisals of the emotional meaning of the situation or ability to cope effectively.^22,23 Reappraisal specifically focuses on the process of reinterpreting or reframing an experience or situation to reduce emotional impact. Emotional appraisals are strongly influenced by the perspectives of others, who help shape the way emotional situations are perceived from early childhood. Another strategy that alters emotional experience is attention deployment, which can be accomplished by shifting attention away from an emotion eliciting situation or thinking of something inconsistent with the emotion.²² An alternative type of emotion regulation strategy is response modulation, which involves efforts to suppress emotional expressions, for example by hiding facial expressions of emotion.^22,24

Effective emotion regulation processes have been linked to psychological health and well-being.²⁵ According to Ryan and Deci, “the concept of well-being refers to optimal psychological functioning and experience.”²⁶^(p142) Although personal and situational factors play a role, reappraisal is generally the most effective method of regulating negative emotions, and habitual use of reappraisal is associated with greater well-being. Emotion suppression does not reduce the experience of negative emotion at all, and is associated with lower levels of well-being.^22,27,28 Overall, effective use of the mobile phone to regulate negative emotions should contribute to greater psychological well-being.

The present study

This study examined participants' responses if access to their mobile phone was disrupted.²⁹ Given that reappraisal requires active cognitive restructuring, which can be supported by others,³⁰ it seemed likely the people inclined to use reappraisal would miss social interactions via mobile phone rather than content use. Thus, it was proposed:

H1: Reappraisal will be associated with missing interpersonal uses of the phone (contact, social support), but not access to entertainment/information content.

In contrast, there was no reason to expect that suppression of emotional expression (included primarily for comparison) would be facilitated by mobile phone use. Thus, the following research question was asked:

RQ1: How will suppression be associated with missed uses/functions of the mobile phone?

The link between missed uses/function of the phone and emotion regulation was also explored with these research questions:

RQ2: How will missed uses/functions of the phone be related (a) to emotion regulation via mobile phone, and (b) to perceived effectiveness of the phone in regulating emotion?

There is conflicting evidence regarding how mobile phone use relates to psychological functioning and mental health.^4,12 Assuming mobile phones have the potential for beneficial psychological outcomes, mobile phone use for emotion regulation may be associated with greater well-being. This outcome would be expected either because such uses enhance well-being or because people with greater well-being are better able to manage their emotions effectively²⁶—including via mobile phone. Thus, it was predicted that:

H2: Well-being will be associated with (a) greater emotion regulation via mobile phone, and (b) greater perceived effectiveness of the phone for regulating emotions.

Method

Participants and procedure

Participants were recruited from undergraduate general education classes at an urban university in the United States in exchange for extra credit. An invitation and link to the survey (on surveymonkey.com) was shared with students via e-mail by instructors. This study was limited to young adults who used smartphones (e.g., iPhone, Android), because they should have access to the full range of mobile phone functions.⁶ The sample included 287 participants (177 females) aged 16–29 years (M_age=19.7 years, SD=2.04 years). A total of 43.2% of respondents identified as black/African American, 26.8% as white/Caucasian, 14.3% as Asian/Pacific Islander, 8.4% as multi-ethnic, 4.9% as Hispanic/Latino/a, and 2.4% as other or not reported. More than 45 different majors were reported. Another study based on the same larger data set (with no substantial overlap) appears elsewhere.³¹

Measures

Table 1 reports means, standard deviations, and reliabilities for rated variables.

Table 1.

Means, Standard Deviations, and Reliabilities of Rated Variables

	M	SD	Cronbach's alpha
Personal characteristics
Reappraisal (ERQ subscale)	3.61	0.83	0.86
Suppression (ERQ subscale)	3.04	0.88	0.71
Subjective well-being	4.09	0.88	0.94
Mobile phone use variables
Mobile phone use	3.30	0.41	0.71
Negative emotion regulation via mobile phone	2.91	1.11	0.94
Perceived emotion regulation effectiveness	3.09	1.06	0.76
Missed functions/uses of mobile phone if lost
Interpersonal contact	4.36	0.93	0.79
Social support	3.16	1.20	0.91
Phone content (Entertainment/Information)	2.81	1.05	0.79

Note. Scores could range from 1 to 5, with the exception of mobile phone use, which could range from 1 to 4. Ns ranged from 284 to 287.

ERQ, Emotion Regulation Questionnaire.

Mobile phone use

Respondents rated how often (1=“never”; 4=“often”) they use their mobile phone for various purposes, including voice calls (making and receiving), text messaging (sending and receiving), e-mail use, social networking sites, Internet, music, games, videos or TV, and shopping for apps. The scale was reliable (α=0.71), and the mean score was calculated.

Missed uses/functions of mobile phone if lost

Respondents read a scenario describing the hypothetical loss of their mobile phone for 5 days, and rated how much they would miss using the phone for several purposes (1=“would not miss at all”; 5=“would miss a great deal”). A principal axis factor analysis of 12 items, with oblique rotation, yielded three factors that were labeled “social support” (eigenvalue=5.50; percent of variance accounted for=45.86%), “entertainment and information” (eigenvalue=1.74; percent of variance accounted for=14.52%), and “interpersonal contact” (eigenvalue=1.02; percent of variance accounted for=8.52%). No cross-loadings exceeded 0.20. The factor analysis results are presented in Table 2. A mean score was calculated for each of the three missed uses/functions of the mobile phone.

Table 2.

Factor Analysis of Missed Uses/Functions of the Mobile Phone

	M	SD	Factor loadings
Missing interpersonal contact
Connecting with friends or family	4.37	1.00	0.74
Communicating with family or friends	4.34	1.04	0.73
Missing social support
Receiving support from others	3.15	1.40	0.94
Getting other people's perspectives	3.18	1.35	0.87
Sharing when bad things happen to me	2.86	1.44	0.77
Providing support to others	3.36	1.38	0.71
Sharing when good things happen to me	3.26	1.40	0.61
Missing entertainment and information
Learning about breaking news	2.78	1.36	0.79
Keeping informed about current events	2.93	1.40	0.75
Watching videos or TV shows	2.38	1.38	0.65
Playing games	2.46	1.41	0.61
Listening to music	3.49	1.55	0.41

Note. Scores could range from 1 to 5.

Negative emotion regulation using the mobile phone

Respondents completed six items with the stem “When I am upset or distressed, my mobile phone….” Three items were intended to measure reappraisal (can help me reframe the way I am thinking about things; provides ways I can think more positively about my situation; helps me find more positive ways of looking at things), and three items were intended to measure distraction (allows me to put my problems out of my mind; helps me avoid thinking about my situation; can distract me from my problems). The items were written for this study, but were based on existing measures of reappraisal and distraction.^22,27 Ratings were made on 5-point Likert scales (1=“disagree strongly”; 5=“agree strongly”). Factor analysis revealed a single factor, so the mean of the six items was calculated.

Perceived emotion regulation effectiveness of the mobile phone

Three items were adapted from a scale by Catanzaro and Mearns,³² using the same stem as above (helps me find ways I can cheer myself up; does not help me feel better (reversed); helps me find ways to calm myself down). Items were rated on 5-point Likert scales, and a mean score was calculated.

Habitual emotion regulation strategies

Respondents completed the 10-item Emotion Regulation Questionnaire (ERQ)²⁷ that assessed two emotion regulation strategies: reappraisal (six items; e.g., “When I'm faced with a stressful situation, I make myself think about it in a way that helps me stay calm”) and suppression (four items; e.g., “I keep my emotions to myself”). Ratings were made on 5-point Likert scales, and a mean score was calculated for each strategy.

Subjective well-being

Well-being was assessed by an eight-item measure of “flourishing” developed by Diener et al.²⁵ Examples include: “My social relationships are supportive and rewarding,” “I am engaged and interested in my daily activities,” and “I am optimistic about my future.” Ratings were made on 5-point Likert scales, and a mean score was calculated.

Results

Responses to hypothetical loss of mobile phone

A one-way repeated measures analysis of variance revealed differences in how much respondents expected to miss the three uses/functions of their mobile phone, F(2, 570)=307.97, p<0.001. Based on Scheffé comparisons, a sense of loss was higher for interpersonal contact (M=4.36_c) than for social support (M=3.16_b), which in turn was higher than for entertainment/information (M=2.81_a). Interpersonal uses of the phone were perceived as likely to be missed most.

Emotion regulation and loss of phone

Hierarchical regression analyses examined how measures of emotion regulation predicted missed uses/functions of the mobile phone (if lost). These analyses enabled us to infer what uses/functions of the phone likely played a role in emotion regulation. In all analyses, sex, age, and mobile phone use were entered first as controls. The habitual emotion regulation measures were entered in the second step. Use of the phone for emotion regulation was entered third, and perceived effectiveness of the phone in regulating emotion was entered last. Table 3 reports the results.

Table 3.

Hierarchical Regression Analyses Predicting Missed Uses of the Mobile Phone if Lost

	Missed uses of mobile phone
	Interpersonal contact		Social support		Entertainment/information content
	Beta	ΔR²	Beta	ΔR²	Beta	ΔR²
1. Background		0.09^***		0.13^***		0.33^***
Sex	0.14^*		0.19^***		−0.07
Age	−0.16^**		−0.08		0.02
Mobile phone use	0.19^***		0.28^***		0.58^***
2. Emotion regulation strategies (ERQ)		0.03^*		0.03^**		0.03^***
Reappraisal	0.18^**		0.15^*		0.08
Suppression	−0.02		0.07		0.14^**
3. Negative emotion regulation via mobile phone	0.19^**	0.03^**	0.39^***	0.13^***	0.30^***	0.07^***
4. Perceived emotion regulation effectiveness	0.12	0.01	0.27^***	0.04^***	.02	.00
	Adjusted R²=0.13		Adjusted R²=0.31		Adjusted R²=0.42
	F(7, 276)=6.98^***		F(7, 276)=18.87^***		F(7, 276)=30.71^***

Note. Betas are standardized betas at entry. For sex, male=0, female=1.

p<0.05; ^**p<0.01; ^***p<0.001.

H1 was supported. As Table 3 shows, habitual use of reappraisal was a positive predictor of missing both interpersonal contact and social support, but was not a significant predictor of missing entertainment/information content. In contrast, in answer to RQ1, habitual use of emotion suppression was a positive predictor of missing entertainment/information content, but not interpersonal contact or social support.

Regarding RQ2, results showed that use of the mobile phone to regulate negative emotion was a positive predictor of all three missed uses/functions of the phone. However, greater perceived effectiveness of the phone in regulating negative emotion was associated only with missing access to social support (RQ3).

Mobile phone use and well-being

Finally, to examine how well-being was associated with emotion regulation via mobile phone, partial correlations were computed, controlling for background variables (sex, age, mobile phone use). In support of H2, well-being was positively correlated with both use of the phone to regulate negative emotion (pr=0.18, p<0.01) and perceived effectiveness in regulating emotion (pr=0.13, p<0.05).

Discussion

This study explored use of mobile phones to regulate negative emotions, including the role of different aspects of phone use and individual differences in emotion regulation strategies. The findings contribute to the growing body of research on emotional uses of mobile phones.^1,2 Respondents expected to miss contact with others the most, social support to a lesser extent, and entertainment/information the least. Other research has shown that mobile phones are heavily used for brief exchanges, coordination, and so on.¹² These instrumental uses may be so intertwined in daily life that loss of these options is (expected to be) very disruptive. Yet, as discussed below, it was social support that was most important in perceived effectiveness of the phone in emotion regulation.

Respondents reported moderate use of their mobile phone to regulate negative emotions. As expected, habitual use of reappraisal was associated with expecting to miss both interpersonal contact and social support, but not entertainment/information. This finding suggests that people inclined to use reappraisal—generally a healthy approach to emotion regulation²²—perceived the mobile phone as facilitating emotion regulation through interpersonal connections. Although smartphones offer a wide array of content that can divert attention from stressful thoughts or challenging situations, interactions with other people are more likely to offer support for efforts to reframe or think about problems in more positive ways.

In contrast, those more inclined to use suppression were more likely to miss access to entertainment/information content on their phone, but not interpersonal contact or social support. Although not predicted, this makes sense, since suppression of emotional expression may be facilitated by avoidance of interpersonal communication. Moreover, because suppression is generally ineffective in remediating negative emotion, it may be that other strategies such as attention deployment/distraction are used as well. Unfortunately, habitual use of distraction to manage negative emotions was not measured in this study. It seems likely that emotional benefits of entertainment/information are due primarily to distraction or escape from problems.

Mobile phone use to regulate negative emotion was associated with missing all three uses/functions of the phone, although the association appeared stronger for social support and entertainment/information. This may reflect the fact that much phone-based social contact is relatively superficial, and may not be as suited to managing negative emotion as other uses of the phone. For respondents in this study, accessing support was the primary factor in perceived effectiveness of the phone in remediating negative affect. Social support can be defined broadly as the receipt of emotional, informational, or tangible support, or the perception that these forms of support are available if needed.^30,33 The social support factor in this study was comprised of items related to communication: seeking and providing support, getting others' perspectives, and sharing when good things and bad things happen. The fact that missing both social support and interpersonal contact was associated with greater use of reappraisal is consistent with evidence that others can help people reframe or reinterpret negative experiences.³⁰

It might be expected that people who tend to use their mobile phone for emotion regulation are those who experience more negative emotion in their daily lives. Although negative affect was not measured directly, the findings for well-being suggest this was not the case. Well-being was positively associated with both use of the mobile phone for emotion regulation and perceived effectiveness. These findings are consistent with evidence linking emotion regulation with subjective well-being.^27,32 One of the key factors in well-being is the experience of relatedness or connection to other people,²⁶ which appeared to be a primary factor in emotion regulation via mobile phone. People with greater well-being may have greater skill in using mobile phones in psychologically beneficial ways.

Limitations and future research

This survey did not directly ask respondents how they used particular aspects of their mobile phones to regulate emotion, or inquire about specific instances when this had occurred. Responses also relied on recall. Future studies should more directly examine specific uses of mobile phones to manage emotions and mood states. Research would also be strengthened by the use of other methods, such as experiments (e.g., using a mood-inducement paradigm) and experience sampling. These types of studies could reveal how people use their mobile phones to regulate emotion in real time, whether their choices vary based on the felt emotion (e.g., anxiety, anger), and the circumstances in which selected strategies effectively remediate negative emotion. Use of a convenience sample of college students is another limitation. However, although it is likely that uses of mobile phones are different for people in other life contexts, college students are heavy users of mobile phones and thus are worthy of study on this topic. In addition, the primary purpose of this study was not to provide descriptive data, but to examine theoretical relationships designed to explain how and why people use their mobile phones to manage negative emotion.

From a broader perspective, this research did not address how constant availability of the mobile phone may be beneficial or harmful for regulating emotion in the short term or over the long term. In addition, Gross and Thompson²² noted that emotion regulation occurs for positive as well as negative emotions. Research also should explore how people use mobile phones to extend or increase positive emotions.

Conclusion

In sum, this study adds to our knowledge of the emotional uses of mobile phones, especially regarding their use for emotion regulation in daily life. Interpersonal functions (social support and social contact) and use of media content (such as music, videos, and news) were associated with using the mobile phone for negative emotion regulation. However, findings suggest that using the phone for social support is most likely to lead to effective remediation of negative emotion. Overall, this study demonstrates that mobile phones can yield psychological benefits, depending on how they are used. Future research in this area will enrich the understanding of emotion regulation processes in a world that is increasingly reliant on mobile technology.

Footnotes

Author Disclosure Statement

No competing financial interests exist.

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