Hide-and-Seek: Narcissism and “Selfie”-Related Behavior

Abstract

While prior research has examined the relationship between narcissism and self-promoting behaviors on social media (e.g., posting selfies), little is known about the extent to which individuals' level of narcissism relates to how involved they are in other people's feedback (e.g., comments and “likes”) received on their selfies, or how observant and responsive they are to other people's selfie postings. The present study investigates how narcissism relates to such selfie-related behaviors, as well as overall evaluation of selfie-posting behavior and intention to post selfies in the future. By employing a total of 315 Korean subjects who take and post selfies on social networking sites, the present study indicates that individuals higher in narcissism are more likely to evaluate selfie-posting behavior favorably, be involved in the feedback provided by others, and be observant of other people's selfies. However, level of narcissism did not moderate the relationship between how much one observes others' selfies and the likelihood of providing a comment or “like” on other people's selfies.

Introduction

Photo-sharing social networking sites (SNSs) have created a “selfie-craze,” which has been a heated topic of discussion since Instagram's first selfie hashtag (#selfie) in 2011.¹ “Selfie” was named the Oxford Dictionaries Word of the Year in 2013, and is defined as “A photograph that one has taken of oneself, typically one taken with a smartphone or webcam and shared via social media.”² Due to users' obsession over this Australian slang, the usage of selfie hashtags increased more than 17,000% between 2012 and 2013.³ Furthermore, approximately 93 million selfies are taken each day by smartphone users,⁴ and the estimated number of photos shared online in 2014 was a staggering 880 billion.⁵

The selfie is unique from other forms of self-expression on social media (e.g., verbal posts) because it allows users to extend the “self” in a very precise manner, as the user's physical characteristics along with personality traits can be manifested in the photo.⁶ Previous research has shown that various cues contained in SNS users' selfies are associated with certain personality traits.^6,7 More specifically, Qiu et al.⁶ coded individuals' selfies and examined the relationship with the participants' self-reported Big Five personality traits. Their results suggest that agreeableness and openness are correlated with emotional positivity of the selfie owner's facial expression, whereas conscientiousness is negatively correlated with privacy of the location where the selfie was taken.

In addition, among many personality traits, researchers have also demonstrated narcissism's association with self-promoting behaviors on social media.^8–13 Narcissism refers to a personality trait that is marked by grandiosity and an overly positive self-view, especially of the individual's own social popularity and physical appearance.^8,14 Prior research suggests that individuals higher in narcissism are very active on SNSs¹² and more likely than their counterparts to display self-promotional content on their static profiles.¹¹ Additional past research has found that narcissism is a significant predictor of the motivation for selecting profile pictures,¹⁰ and individuals higher in narcissism are more likely to upload attractive selfies on social media.¹⁵ Recently, Weiser¹⁶ empirically showed that narcissism exhibits positive and significant associations with selfie-posting frequency. The overall findings from prior research suggest that posting selfies, as with other self-promoting behavior on SNSs, represents an avenue through which narcissistic needs are expressed through social media.¹⁶

While there have been numerous popular press articles and some empirical studies devoted to the relationship between narcissism and self-promoting behavior (including the selfie) in a variety of social media contexts, to the authors' knowledge, no study has yet examined how narcissism relates to how involved individuals are in other people's feedback (e.g., comments and “likes”) received on their selfies, or how observant and responsive they are to other people's selfie postings. In addition, limited research has examined how narcissism relates to evaluation of selfie-posting behavior as well as future intentions.

Although narcissism is marked by an elevated love for the self, psychoanalysts have suggested that a deep-seated sense of inadequacy prompts narcissists to constantly seek attention and confirmation from others.^17,18 Furthermore, previous works on narcissism have shown how narcissists utilize various self-enhancement and self-protection strategies to regulate and satisfy their self-view.^19,20 Accordingly, considering that feedback on social media is predominantly supportive²¹ and self-affirming,²² more narcissistic individuals, who regard positive feedback as confirmation of their glowing self-concepts,²³ are likely to be more attentive to and interested in the feedback they receive on their own selfie. Therefore, the following hypothesis is put forth:

H1. Narcissism will be positively associated with the level of involvement in the feedback (i.e., comments and “likes”) they receive on their selfies.

Seeking positive feedback and showing off one's personal traits are examples of noncomparative self-enhancement strategies put forth by narcissists.^14,23 Such a self-centered tendency of narcissists led Bergman et al.²⁴ to hypothesize that narcissism is negatively associated with the time spent on observing others' selfie posts and status updates on SNSs, especially due to narcissists' preoccupation with self-related activities on SNSs. However, they found no relationship. While individuals higher in narcissism actively engage in self-enhancement strategies and tend to focus on self-centered activities on SNSs (i.e., noncomparative self-enhancement strategies), they also utilize a variety of comparative self-enhancement strategies to confirm their self-view.²⁵ Comparative self-enhancement strategies refer to the act of disparaging others, especially with those possessing comparable traits, to reaffirm the narcissist's inflated superiority.^25,26 As a result, individuals with higher narcissism scores, characterized by a tendency to disapprove and take advantage of others to enhance their self-worth, are more likely to observe selfies posted by other people (those deemed inferior to the narcissists). Therefore, we propose the following hypothesis:

H2. Narcissism will be positively associated with the degree to which one observes other people's selfies.

Presumably, those who put more effort into observing others' selfies are more likely to leave comments or “like” others' posts. However, we also predict that the relationship may not be true for people higher in narcissism. In terms of the five-factor model, narcissistic individuals tend to score relatively low on agreeableness.²⁷ They also lack empathy,²⁸ and despite their expectations of respect and special treatment, they give very little or nothing in return.²⁹ Furthermore, Carpenter³⁰ showed how the two maladaptive elements of narcissism (i.e., grandiose exhibitionism and entitlement/exploitativeness) serve as key predictors of seeking social support more than providing support to others on Facebook. Higher levels of narcissism have also been negatively associated with the number of responses received from friends on status updates, due to unfavorable opinions of narcissists.³¹ Perhaps an alternative explanation for such a relationship is a lack of mutual reciprocity. Extending from previous studies, we predict the following two hypotheses:

H3. The higher the degree to which one observes other people's selfies, the more likely one would leave comments or “likes” on others' selfies.

H4. Levels of narcissism will interact with the degree to which one observes other people's selfies to predict the likelihood of leaving comments or “likes” on others' selfies.

Given that users have a significant amount of control over their self-presentation online, SNSs are accessible venues for narcissists to promote their social popularity.³² As a result, higher levels of narcissism are associated with more frequent, as well as more attractive photo and status updates.^8,12 According to Weiser's¹⁶ recent study, a positive relationship exists between narcissism and selfie-posting frequency. The results of the study are in line with prior research examining narcissism and its relationship to attention-seeking and self-promoting behaviors in SNS contexts.^8,30 Thus, it is reasonable to suggest that individuals higher in narcissism will show more positive attitudes toward their selfie-posting behaviors. In addition, based on the link between behavior and attitude, which has been repeatedly tested and validated in prior literature (e.g., Theory of Planned Behavior, Theory of Reasoned Action), we hypothesize the following:

H5. Narcissism will be associated with (a) more positive attitudes toward selfie-posting behavior, as well as (b) greater intention to engage in selfie-posting behavior.

Methods

Participants

An online survey was conducted over a 1-week period in May 2015. The survey respondents were recruited by an online consumer research company based in Korea. The initial sample consisted of a total of 319 SNS users who had ever posted their own selfies on such SNS as Facebook, KakaoStory, Instagram, and Twitter. Among them, four participants did not complete the survey, resulting in a final sample size of 315 for the analyses. The average age of the respondents was 29 years old, ranging from 19 to 39 (SD = 5.30). Among the 315 respondents, 94 were male and 221 were female.

Measures

Narcissism (M = 3.70, SD = 0.93; Cronbach's α = 0.89) was assessed using the 13-item Narcissistic Personality Inventory (NPI-13).³³ The NPI-13 is a brief measure of the most widely used 40-item Narcissistic Personality Inventory (NPI) that was designed to be used for nonclinical populations.²⁰ The validity and reliability of the short 13-item measure have been demonstrated by Gentile et al.³³ Example items include “I like having authority over other people,” “I like to look at myself in the mirror,” and “I insist upon getting the respect that is due to me.” Higher scores on the NPI indicate more narcissistic personality traits. The participants responded on a seven-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree to 7 = strongly agree).

Involvement in the feedback they receive on their own selfie (i.e., “Other people's feedback, such as comments and ‘likes,’ to the selfies I post on SNS is…”; M = 4.70, SD = 1.32; α = 0.94) was assessed along a seven-point (1–7) semantic differential scale with four items: (a) unimportant/important, (b) useless/useful, (c) uninteresting/interesting, and (d) boring/entertaining.

The degree to which one observes others' selfies was measured using two items (i.e., “Do you carefully examine others' selfies?” and “Do you carefully examine the comments and number of ‘likes’ on others' selfies?”; M = 4.38, SD = 1.29; α = 0.74), and the degree to which one comments or “likes” others' selfies was measured using a single item (i.e., “Do you comment or ‘like’ others' selfies?”; M = 4.70, SD = 1.42) on a seven-point scale (1 = not at all to 7 = very much).

Attitude toward selfie-posting behavior (M = 4.50, SD = 1.08; α = 0.92) was gauged along a seven-point (1–7) semantic differential scale with eight items: (a) unpleasant/pleasant, (b) unenjoyable/enjoyable, (c) worthless/valuable, (d) harmful/beneficial, (e) bad/good, (f) unimportant/important, (g) useless/useful, and (h) unsatisfactory/satisfactory.³³ The eight items were averaged to form an attitude toward the selfie-posting behavior index. Higher scores indicate more positive attitude. Finally, the intention to post selfies (M = 4.34, SD = 1.26; α = 0.83) was assessed with two items (i.e., “I will make an effort to post selfies”; “I plan to post selfies on a regular basis”), using a seven-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree to 7 = strongly agree).³⁴

Results

Sample characteristics

To examine the general selfie behavior of the respondents, descriptive statistics were run before testing the proposed hypotheses. Respondents were given the Oxford Dictionaries' definition of selfie² (i.e., A photograph that one has taken of oneself, typically one taken with a smartphone or webcam and shared via social media) and were asked to estimate the percentage of selfies out of the total photo uploads in SNSs. Selfie uploads accounted for 35.6% of the total photo uploads. The respondents primarily posted their selfies on Facebook (63.5%), followed by the Korean SNS KakaoStory (52.7%), Instagram (28.6%), and Twitter (7%). In addition, respondents were given a list of 10 selfie types (e.g., everyday/ordinary, travel, food) along with eight specific locations (e.g., restaurants, stores) and asked to select all the types of selfie they post on SNSs, as well as their preferred locations for taking selfies. In addition, three additional broad locations were asked (i.e., outdoor, public indoor, and private indoor).

About 72% of respondents reported that they post everyday/ordinary selfies, followed by travel/vacation (54.3%), leisure activities (53.0%), hobbies (49.8%), food (48.3%), party/social (41.6%), beauty products (19.0%), pets (16.2%), commercial brands/products (14.9%), fitness/workout (4.8%), and others (1.0%). The order in which the respondents indicated their most preferred locations for taking selfies is as listed: ordinary everyday places (e.g., school or work; 74.0%), restaurant (e.g., café or pub; 68.6%), tourist destinations (e.g., airport or tourist attractions; 66.3%), nature (e.g., forest or park; 64.1%), cultural–sports complex (38.4%), stores (e.g., mall or shop; 23.2%), cars (14.9%), and gyms (8.3%). Furthermore, the participants preferred taking their selfies outdoors (74.3%) and at public indoor locations (e.g., classrooms or cafés; 70.8%), more than in a more enclosed indoor environment (e.g., bathroom or bedroom; 26.7%).

Hypothesis testing

To test our proposed hypotheses, partial correlation analyses were employed while controlling for the effects of age and gender. As predicted, individuals who have a higher level of narcissism were more involved in other people's comments and “likes” on their own selfies (pr = 0.24, p < 0.001), supporting H1. Furthermore, narcissism was positively associated with the degree to which one observes other people's selfies (pr = 0.18, p < 0.001), thereby supporting H2.

To test H3 and H4, we employed a multiple regression analysis. Before conducting the multiple regression, centered variables of the degree to which one observes other people's selfies and narcissism were created by subtracting the respective mean scores. A cross-product variable was created for testing the interaction term between the two variables. The regression model was statistically significant (R² = 0.42, F = 75.51, p < 0.001). Although the main effect of narcissism (β = −0.03, t = −0.77, p = 0.44) was not significant, the main effect of the degree to which one observes other people's selfies emerged as significant (β = 0.66, t = 14.71, p < 0.001), supporting H3. Contrary to our H4, however, the interaction effect was not significant (β = 0.02, t = 0.38, p = 0.71). In addition, the results of partial correlation analyses suggest that narcissism was unrelated to the act of providing a comment or “like” on other people's selfies (pr = 0.09, p = 0.12).

Finally, the results suggest that there is a positive relationship between narcissism and attitude toward selfie-posting behavior (pr = 0.31, p < 0.001), as well as intention to post selfies in the future (pr = 0.32, p < 0.001), supporting both H5-a and b. Partial correlations between variables can be viewed in Table 1.

Table 1.

Partial Correlation Among Variables, Means, and Standard Deviations

Measure	1	2	3	4	5	6	M	SD
1. Narcissism	—	0.24^*	0.19^*	0.09	0.31^*	0.32^*	3.70	0.93
2. Involvement in others' responses to their selfie		—	0.54^*	0.39^*	0.42^*	0.41^*	4.70	1.32
3. Observes others' selfie			—	0.84^*	0.44^*	0.55^*	4.38	1.29
4. Comments or “likes” others' selfie				—	0.39^*	0.51^*	4.70	1.42
5. Attitude toward selfie posting					—	0.69^*	4.51	1.08
6. Intention to post selfie in the future						—	4.34	1.26

Notes. M, mean; SD, standard deviation; Age and gender were controlled.

^*p < 0.01.

Discussion

The present study examined the relationship between narcissism and selfie-related behaviors. Our findings showed that individuals higher in narcissism are more involved in the feedback (e.g., comments and “likes”) they receive on their selfies and are more observant of other people's selfies. In addition, the results of the study suggest that the higher the degree to which one observes other people's selfies, the more likely one would leave comments or “likes” on others' selfies. Finally, individuals higher in narcissism regard the act of posting selfies more positively and are more willing to continue posting selfies in the future.

While a number of empirical studies have investigated the relationship between narcissism and self-centered, self-promoting behaviors on SNS,^8,11,12 the present study sought to explore an understudied facet of narcissism, how one observes others. As discussed, Bergman et al.²⁴ predicted a negative relationship between narcissism and attention to others' SNS photos, but found no relationship, calling for additional investigation. To fill the gap in the literature, we tested the relationship again. However, we hypothesized the opposite of what Bergman et al.²⁴ predicted in their study. As suggested by Campbell et al.²⁵ a central characteristic of narcissism is self-enhancement, particularly comparative self-enhancement strategies. In line with prior research, the current study provides additional empirical support that narcissism is not only related to involvement in one's own selfies, but is also related to how much one observes other people's selfies (i.e., comparative self-enhancement). Our findings suggest that narcissism can be more accurately identified through a comparative self-enhancement strategy (i.e., observing other people's selfies) that involves expressing and maintaining an elevated view of self in relation to others.²⁵

An interesting finding is that narcissism was not associated with the act of providing a comment or “like” on other people's selfies, suggesting that individuals higher in narcissism observe other people's selfies to a greater extent, but do not necessarily comment on or “like” them. Individuals higher in narcissism are not apathetic toward other people's social media content and actually are more likely to keep an eye on what others are posting as a means of comparative self-enhancement strategy. Nevertheless, they do not engage in social interaction with or provide direct feedback to other people. Therefore, our findings provide another possible avenue for future research. For example, Carpenter³⁰ found that both maladaptive forms of narcissism, grandiose exhibitionism (e.g., I know that I am a good person because everybody keeps telling me so) and entitlement/exploitativeness (e.g., I insist upon getting the respect that is due to me), are related to antisocial behaviors such as reacting aggressively against negative feedback, reading friends' updates to see if they are talking about oneself, and seeking positive feedback more often than providing the same. Future research may provide insight regarding maladaptive behaviors associated with narcissism on social media.

In sum, in line with the narcissistic self-enhancement perspective,^18,25 the present research has important implications for research on the construct of narcissism, especially in the context of social media. The results of the present study provide additional empirical insights in the social media environments in which narcissists tend to engage in greater across-the-board self-enhancement strategies (i.e., both comparative and noncomparative self-enhancement), relative to non-narcissists, for affirmation to regulate their own self-esteem through selfie-related behavior (i.e., involvement in the feedback on their selfies, observation of other people's selfies).

Although the findings reported in this study further substantiate narcissism's unique role within a social platform, the study is not without limitations. First, a self-report survey was used to assess SNS users' selfie-posting as well as selfie-observing behaviors. Additionally, a single-item measure was employed to assess the degree to which one comments or “likes” other people's selfies. Self-reports and single-item measures are somewhat limited and, therefore, future research should attempt to replicate the findings of this study. For example, a triangulation approach (e.g., survey with content analysis) can be employed to increase both validity and reliability of the findings. Perhaps future work could survey a group of narcissists and content analyze how their self-enhancement strategies are manifested in their selfies as well as how they react to others' selfies (e.g., whether they leave comments or “likes”) by visiting the survey participants' actual SNS accounts.

Although insights as to what may cause such behaviors as involvement in the feedback on their selfies and observation of other people's selfies among individuals higher in narcissism are discussed, the correlations do not imply causation. Future studies should extend the current study by uncovering the underlying social and psychological motives behind various selfie-related behaviors of narcissists. Finally, the associative linkages we tested in the current study need to be replicated in other cultural contexts and settings before any cross-cultural generalization of the findings can be made.

The rise of selfies has been a topic of interest for scholars. A majority of studies regarding this unique form of self-expression have been focused only on the content creator (i.e., selfie poster), while disregarding the audience. However, as our results suggest, selfies are not only generated by users, but are also consumed by users; hence, future studies are needed to delve into the interactive nature of selfies that may shed light on the yet-to-be discovered psychological matters underlying social network use.

Footnotes

Author Disclosure Statement

No competing financial interests exist.

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