Motives Matter: Motives for Playing Pokémon Go and Implications for Well-Being

Abstract

Mobile games such as Pokémon Go have become a major form of entertainment, and yet little is known about why people play the games and how their motives associate with well-being. Although literature on motives for playing video and online games is informative, the findings may not reflect the full spectrum of mobile gaming motives due to some unique affordances of mobile games (e.g., mobility). To catch up with the evolving gaming context, a popular mobile game, Pokémon Go, was taken as an example to explore individuals' mobile gaming motives. A Pokémon Go Motive Scale was developed. Seven motives were identified through factor analyses based on survey data from 262 Pokémon Go players (45 percent women; M_age = 30.71, standard deviation = 7.77): Exercise, Fun, Escapism, Nostalgia, Friendship Maintenance, Relationship Initiation, and Achievement. Both Fun and Friendship Maintenance were positive correlates of well-being, whereas Escapism and Nostalgia were negative correlates. Relationship Initiation was associated with both better and poorer well-being. Implications of the findings are discussed.

Introduction

Gaming motives

Motives play an important role in understanding players' approaches to digital games. Based on the uses and gratifications (U&G) perspective,¹ gaming research^2,3 shows that the same game can gratify multiple needs. Researchers have been proposing different motive models of game playing and exploring how these motives relate to actual gaming behaviors.^2,4

Most research has focused on video and online games, whereas mobile games (the games accessible on mobile devices) are calling for more attention with their increasing popularity. For instance, Pokémon Go is a game where players rely on the GPS on their mobile device to locate and capture Pokémon, a collection of fictional creatures. Adopting the augmented reality (AR) techniques that mingle the virtual world with the reality, the game can make players feel as if the Pokémon are present with them in the real world. Launched in July of 2016, Pokémon Go soon became the most popular mobile game in US history,⁵ attracting over 25 million users in the country a week after its release.⁶ What motivated these players (and thus contributed to this success)?

Being part of the “gaming family,” mobile games share similarities with video and online games. For example, players can hunt for or battle Pokémon with others and experience feelings of accomplishment. Therefore, some motives already identified in existing gaming literature, such as social interaction and attaining a sense of achievement,^7,8 may be applicable to mobile games. On the other hand, mobile games have their own uniqueness. For instance, the mobility allows players to enjoy the games (and interact with the reality, if AR is afforded) while they are on the move, making these games less sedentary. In the case of Pokémon Go, mobility is a defining feature of the game; players are required to move around to collect Pokémon, which differentiates it from traditional video and online games. New motives may emerge from the new affordances, but they have not been properly explored. Using Pokémon Go as an example of mobile games, we proposed the following research question:

RQ1: What are the motives for playing Pokémon Go?

Implications of gaming motives for well-being

Well-being refers to a state of wellness that allows individuals to function at an optimal level. In addition to physical health, it also involves psychosocial features such as having positive relations with others, purpose in life, self-acceptance, personal growth, autonomy, and environmental mastery.⁹ The implications of gaming for players' psychosocial and physical well-being have been a major pursuit among scholars, although the foci are usually on game use rather than motives. Specifically, recent studies suggest that gaming may bring psychosocial benefits, as it is largely a social activity and can strengthen connections among friends.^10,11 The association between game play and physical well-being is less encouraging. Regular video game players are at a higher risk of being overweight,¹² and those who spend more time playing online games report doing exercise at a lower frequency.¹³

What is missing from the current literature is the answer to the question of how gaming motives would associate with users' well-being. According to the self-determination theory (SDT),¹⁴ motivation is a fundamental element contributing to individuals' growth and self-regulation. Motives behind one's goal pursuit affect the person's well-being independent of what the goals are,¹⁵ suggesting that motives make unique contributions to well-being. Given the significance of motives/motivation in human processes and scholars' recognition that different gaming motives would lead to different consequences for players,⁷ it is surprising how little attention has been paid to the relationships between gaming motives and players' well-being. To bridge this gap, the second research question was proposed:

RQ2: How are the motives associated with users' psychosocial and physical well-being?

Methods

Participants

A total of 262 adults (45 percent women; age = 18–58, M_age = 30.71, standard deviation [SD] = 7.77) in the United States were recruited from Amazon TurkPrime.¹⁶ Each respondent received $3.00 for completing the online self-report survey.

Measures

Control variables

Participants reported age, sex, and how many hours per day they spent on Pokémon Go the week before completing the survey.

Motives

Based on results of a pilot study where 78 participants (53 percent women; M_age = 29.75, SD = 8.90) each provided up to five reasons for playing Pokémon Go, we developed a Pokémon Go Motive Scale. The 5-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree; 5 = strongly agree) included 44 items. Psychometric properties are reported later and in Table 1.

Table 1.

Confirmatory Factor Analysis of the Pokémon Go Motive Scale

Items	Loading
Exercise	α = 0.96
(1) To get myself active (walking and exercising)	0.899^***
(2) To walk and improve my fitness	0.855^***
(3) To become more active when being outdoors	0.842^***
(4) To get some exercise	0.944^***
(5) To burn calories	0.854^***
(6) To exercise by traveling around	0.878^***
(7) To encourage me to get outside and be more active	0.850^***
Fun	α = 0.88
(8) It is fun collecting Pokémon	0.933^***
(9) It is fun capturing Pokémon	0.918^***
(10) It is fun hunting for those cute little Pokémon	0.746^***
(11) It is thrilling to hunt down new Pokémon and catch them	0.804^***
(12) It is fascinating to see reality mingle with the game on a screen	0.501^***
Escapism	α = 0.86
(13) To take my mind off work and other worries	0.842^***
(14) To keep me from getting bored	0.787^***
(15) To get my mind off the present world	0.815^***
Nostalgia	α = 0.97
(16) I grew up watching and idolizing everything Pokémon related	0.814^***
(17) I have played Pokémon for many years and this is a new fun way to play	0.835^***
(18) It brings back a sense of nostalgia from when I played the original games	0.885^***
(19) It reminds me of watching Pokémon when I was younger	0.913^***
(20) It makes me nostalgic for older Pokémon games	0.916^***
(21) It reminds me of my childhood (nostalgia)	0.922^***
(22) It brings back fun memories	0.932^***
(23) It makes me feel young again	0.858^***
Friendship maintenance	α = 0.93
(24) To socialize and spend time with friends	0.838^***
(25) As an option when hanging out with friends	0.848^***
(26) It is a fun activity to enjoy with my friends	0.888^***
(27) My friends play it and it is great gathering and catching Pokémon together	0.931^***
Relationship initiation	α = 0.94
(28) To meet new people	0.895^***
(29) To meet others who share the same passion as I do	0.898^***
(30) To make me more social and meet a lot of new people	0.916^***
(31) To interact with other players	0.843^***
Achievement	α = 0.89
(32) To beat the gyms and dominate my local area	0.850^***
(33) To compete with others at gyms	0.839^***
(34) To have better Pokémon than my friends	0.697^***
(35) To level up and take on gyms with my Pokémon	0.564^***

***

p < 0.001.

Social capital

We used Williams'¹⁷ 20-item, 5-point (1 = strongly disagree; 5 = strongly agree) scale to measure offline bonding (α = 0.92) and bridging (α = 0.89) social capitals.

Loneliness

The 20-item, 4-point (0 = I never feel this way; 3 = I often feel this way) UCLA Loneliness Scale¹⁸ was used (α = 0.98).

Life satisfaction

The 5-item, 7-point (1 = strongly disagree, 7 = strongly agree) Satisfaction with Life Scale¹⁹ was used (α = 0.93).

Physical health

Twelve items from the Physical and Environmental Health Subscale of the Holistic Health Score Sheet²⁰ were adapted. Higher mean scores of the 6-point scale (1 = strongly disagree/once a year or less, 6 = strongly agree/daily) reflected better physical wellness (α = 0.83).

Results

Motives for playing Pokémon Go

We started with an exploratory factor analysis of the 44 motive items, using Mplus 7.²¹ The seven-factor solution appeared to be the most reasonable model. It had the lowest Bayesian Information Criterion (BIC = 28,941.347), and the model fit was acceptable: χ²(659) = 1,401.799, p < 0.001; root-mean-squared error of approximation (RMSEA) = 0.066, 90 percent confidence interval (CI) [0.061, 0.070]; comparative fit index (CFI) = 0.93; Tucker-Lewis index (TLI) = 0.90. We removed the items that did not load on any factors (i.e., all loadings <0.30) and re-examined the ones that significantly loaded on more than one factor. Among the latter, we further removed the items that had a small loading difference (<0.10) or were not phrased clearly. The procedure led to the removal of nine items. We then performed a confirmatory factory analysis on the remaining 35 items. All items loaded on the expected factor with a loading of >0.50, and the model fit well: χ²(539) = 955.807, p < 0.001; RMSEA = 0.054, 90 percent CI [0.049, 0.060]; CFI = 0.95, TLI = 0.95. The model was interpretable and conceptually reasonable. These seven factors were Exercise, Fun, Escapism, Nostalgia, Friendship Maintenance, Relationship Initiation, and Achievement. The Cronbach's alphas ranged from 0.86 to 0.97 (Table 1). For descriptive statistics of the seven motive factors and correlations with the major variables, see Table 2.

Table 2.

Correlations Among Major Variables

	Mean (SD)	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	9	10	11	12
(1) Play amount (hours/day)	3.10 (2.69)	1
(2) Exercise (1–5)	3.49 (1.07)	0.11	1
(3) Fun (1–5)	4.21 (0.70)	0.14^*	0.27^***	1
(4) Escapism (1–5)	3.51 (1.01)	0.09	0.27^***	0.28^***	1
(5) Nostalgia (1–5)	3.38 (1.25)	0.10	0.11	0.37^***	0.15^*	1
(6) Friendship maintenance (1–5)	3.16 (1.19)	0.23^***	0.30^***	0.27^***	0.26^***	0.28^***	1
(7) Relationship initiation (1–5)	2.71 (1.17)	0.24^***	0.26^***	0.14^*	0.20^**	0.20^**	0.68^***	1
(8) Achievement (1–5)	3.22 (1.14)	0.14^*	0.09	0.40^***	0.20^**	0.47^***	0.42^***	0.39^***	1
(9) Bonding capital (1–5)	3.82 (0.78)	−0.09	−0.05	0.18^**	−0.16^**	−0.01	−0.03	−0.06	0.02	1
(10) Bridging capital (1–5)	3.71 (0.79)	−0.03	0.06	0.16^*	−0.04	0.06	0.20^**	0.24^***	0.12	0.60^***	1
(11) Loneliness (0–3)	0.97 (0.84)	−0.03	0.05	−0.08	0.14^*	0.15^*	0.10	0.18^**	0.09	−0.39^***	−0.22^**	1
(12) Life satisfaction (1–7)	4.66 (1.50)	−0.12	0.09	0.15^*	−0.07	0.08	0.18^**	0.13^*	0.10	0.45^***	0.33^***	−0.37^***	1
(13) Physical health (1–6)	4.12 (0.86)	−0.05	0.03	0.15^*	0.05	0.09	0.17^*	0.13	0.06	0.29^***	0.33^***	−0.21^**	0.48^***

p < 0.05; ^**p < 0.01; ^***p < 0.001.

SD, standard deviation.

Motives and well-being

A series of multiple regressions were performed, where well-being outcomes were regressed on the seven motives, controlling for age, sex, and overall amount of play (Table 3).

Table 3.

Ordinary Least-Squares Regression of Well-Being on Gaming Motives

	Bonding capital		Bridging capital		Loneliness		Life satisfaction		Physical health
	b (SE)	β	b (SE)	β	b (SE)	β	b (SE)	β	b (SE)	β
Control variables
Age	0.01 (0.01)	0.11	0.01 (0.01)	0.08	−0.00 (0.01)	−0.04	0.01 (0.01)	0.06	0.00 (0.01)	0.03
Female	0.02 (0.10)	0.01	0.02 (0.11)	0.01	0.05 (0.13)	0.03	0.22 (0.20)	0.07	−0.22 (0.13)	−0.13⁺
Play amount	−0.02 (0.02)	−0.08	−0.03 (0.02)	−0.10⁺	−0.02 (0.02)	−0.06	−0.10 (0.04)	−0.18^**	−0.04 (0.02)	−0.11
Motives
Exercise	−0.05 (0.05)	−0.07	−0.03 (0.05)	−0.04	0.02 (0.06)	0.02	0.03 (0.10)	0.02	−0.04 (0.06)	−0.05
Fun	0.31 (0.08)	0.28^***	0.20 (0.08)	0.18^*	−0.25 (0.10)	−0.21^*	0.26 (−.16)	0.12⁺	0.22 (0.10)	0.19^*
Escapism	−0.16 (0.05)	−0.20^**	−0.10 (0.05)	−0.13⁺	0.13 (0.06)	0.15^*	−0.25 (0.10)	−0.17^*	−0.01 (0.06)	−0.01
Nostalgia	−0.01 (0.05)	−0.01	−0.00 (0.05)	−0.00	0.12 (0.06)	0.18^*	0.05 (0.09)	0.04	0.02 (0.06)	0.03
Friendship Maintenance	0.01 (0.06)	0.02	0.05 (0.06)	0.07	−0.05 (0.07)	−0.06	0.22 (0.11)	0.17^*	0.13 (0.07)	0.17⁺
Relation initiation	−0.02 (0.06)	−0.03	0.16 (0.06)	0.24^**	0.14 (0.07)	0.19^*	0.09 (0.11)	0.07	0.02 (0.07)	0.03
Achievement	0.01 (0.05)	0.02	−0.01 (0.05)	−0.01	0.03 (0.07)	0.03	0.02 (0.10)	0.02	−0.08 (0.07)	−0.10
R²	0.11		0.10		0.10		0.10		0.07
F	2.92^**		2.91^**		2.26^*		2.87^**		1.51

The variables were entered into the regression models by using scale mean scores (not centered or standardized).

⁺p < 0.10; ^*p < 0.05; ^**p < 0.01; ^***p < 0.001.

SE, standard error.

Five of the seven motives had significant associations, with at least one well-being variable. Playing the game for fun was consistently related to better well-being, such as higher bonding (β = 0.28, p < 0.001) and bridging (β = 0.18, p = 0.017) social capitals, lower loneliness (β = −0.21, p = 0.013), and better physical health (β = 0.19, p = 0.030). Playing the game to maintain friendships was related to higher life satisfaction (β = 0.17, p = 0.049). Playing the game to initiate new relationships was related to more bridging social capital (β = 0.24, p = 0.005) but also higher loneliness (β = 0.19, p = 0.048). Both using the game to escape from reality and playing with nostalgia were related to poorer well-being. Both were associated with higher loneliness (β_Escapism = 0.15, p = 0.040; β_Nostalgia = 0.18, p = 0.041), and Escapism was also related to lower bonding social capital (β = −0.20, p = 0.002) and life satisfaction (β = −0.17, p = 0.011).

Discussion

Based on Pokémon Go players' responses to why they played the game, we developed a Pokémon Go Motive Scale and identified seven factors: Exercise, Fun, Escapism, Nostalgia, Friendship Maintenance, Relationship Initiation, and Achievement. Except for Exercise and Escapism, all the motives were positively correlated with overall amount of play. It is intriguing that Escapism was not correlated with more game playing despite the former's well-established association with pathological or problematic gaming.^4,7,22 It lends support to the argument that high levels of gaming per se should not be equated with problematic game use,⁴ which involves addiction-like symptoms, such as withdrawal, tolerance, and compromised social or life functioning.^23,24

Five of the seven motives were associated with users' well-being. Other researchers have discussed fun and enjoyment as a major gratification of gaming,³ but its implications for well-being were less clear. Our study expanded the literature, showing that being able to have fun and enjoy the game was consistently associated with positive outcomes, including higher bonding and bridging social capitals, lower loneliness, and better physical health. For people who score high on this motive, the game may bring positive emotions and pleasant experiences, which contribute to a better state of wellness.

Social interaction, in general, is frequently recognized as an important motive in gaming literature,^7,8,22 but research on other digital media suggests that using technologies to interact with existing friends versus striking new relationships should be treated as different constructs. The former is typically associated with better psychosocial outcomes, whereas the latter shows an opposite relationship.^25,26 The necessity of also making this distinction in gaming research was reflected in the results of our factor analysis and the differentiated associations between the two motives and well-being. Playing Pokémon Go to maintain existing friendships was related to a higher level of well-being (life satisfaction). On the other hand, the motive of relationship initiation was a mixed blessing. It was associated with both higher bridging social capital and higher loneliness. A possible explanation is that lonely players are more motivated to initiate new relationships through Pokémon Go, which, indeed, expands their social network and thus increases bridging social capital. However, the new relationships formed through Pokémon Go (within a short period since it was launched) are likely to be weak ties²⁷ and may not be instrumental in reducing one's loneliness.

The last two motives were related to poor psychosocial well-being. Both Escapism and Nostalgia were related to higher loneliness, and Escapism was further associated with lower bonding social capital and life satisfaction. Given that escapism is frequently found to be a positive correlate of problematic or pathological gaming,^4,7,22 our findings should not be surprising. Those who are motivated to use games to escape from the here-and-now worries may be adopting gaming as an avoidance coping strategy. Avoidance coping involves ignoring or escaping from stressors instead of proactively resolving problems, which is related to poor well-being such as depression, anxiety, and stress.²⁸ Little is known about nostalgia as a gaming motive, but its “looking back” nature may be the reason why it was related to poorer well-being. After all, being immersed in the past (e.g., rumination) is associated with mental health issues.²⁹ The findings may help users and health professionals recognize the beneficial motives and discern the concerning ones.

Limitations, Implications, and Contributions

Our correlational data did not allow us to ascertain causality between gaming motives and well-being. Longitudinal and experimental designs are needed to unravel the directionality of the associations. In addition, following the guidance of U&G,¹ future research should explore how different gaming motives prompt users to approach mobile games in different ways, and how different usage influences users' well-being. From the SDT perspective, it is also worth pursuing whether gamers' motives and needs are, indeed, gratified by the mobile games, because such gratification predicts how much one enjoys a game and how likely she or he will continue to play it.³⁰

Despite the limitations, this study contributes to the gaming literature by illuminating reasons for playing a new mobile game, Pokémon Go, and clarifying the understudied associations between gaming motives and well-being. We reported both motives already spotted in previous studies (e.g., Escapism, Achievement) and the ones rarely discussed (e.g., Exercise, Nostalgia). Various motives were associated with well-being when controlling for the amount of play, underscoring the importance of considering users' motives in the research of digital media. Although gaming research typically involves a relatively large number of motives^4,22 and thus scholars have been trying to develop a more parsimonious framework,⁸ our study cautions researchers not to collapse the motives that seem similar but are conceptually different (e.g., friendship maintenance and relationship initiation), as they have different psychosocial implications.

Although this study focused on only one game, the reported motives, especially those that are not game specific (Fun, Escapism, Achievement), should be applicable to a wide variety of video, online, and mobile games. In addition, given that many gaming activities are social in nature,^10,11 the relational motives (Friendship Maintenance, Relationship Initiation) should also be observable in various gaming contexts, such as traditional video gaming and massively multiplayer online role-playing games (MMORPGs). The motive of Exercise is relevant to the games requiring players to perform physical activities, including exergames (e.g., Wii, Dance Dance Revolution) and geocaching games where players rely on the GPS to hide and seek objects in different locations. Even the infrequently identified Nostalgia might be relevant to the new app of Super Mario Run. Future research should examine whether the associations between motives and well-being found in this study will be replicated in these other games. Our findings can provide a useful structure for researchers to catch up with the ever-changing media/gaming environment.

Footnotes

Acknowledgments

This study was supported by grants from the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities and the Research Funds of Renmin University of China (15XNLF08).

Author Disclosure Statement

No competing financial interests exist.

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