Student Cyberloafing In and Out of the Classroom in China and the Relationship with Student Performance

Abstract

This study investigates the in-class and out-of-class cyberloafing activities of students in China, and tests the relationship between those activities and academic performance. A sample of 1,050 undergraduate students at a large University in China reported their in-class (N = 548) and out-of-class (N = 502) cyberloafing activities, which were tested against the students' academic performance. The test results show a negative relationship between in-class cyberloafing and academic performance, but an inverted U-shaped relationship between out-of-class cyberloafing and academic performance. The results support our propositions that cyberloafing is a harmful distraction in the classroom, but can have positive effects when performed in moderation outside the classroom as a means of effort recovery.

Introduction

The developments in mobile information and communication technologies (ICT) have reduced restrictions of time and space when using the Internet as they allow people to enjoy the Internet at any time and place using a handheld device. The effect of ICTs on Internet usage is perhaps most evident in China, where recent statistics from the year 2016 show that the number of Chinese smartphone Internet users reached 695 million, accounting for 95.1 percent of total Internet users in the country.¹ From an educational perspective, the Internet and ICTs are increasingly becoming part of the learning environment² and college students are more connected to the Internet than ever before.³ For most college students, mobile Internet has become an indispensable part of their studies and lives. The use of Internet technologies can positively improve learner outcomes by giving students access to more timely, relevant, and updated material.⁴ However, the Internet can also be used for non-academic purposes, creating an impediment to the effective integration of the Internet and ICTs into the learning environment.²

Leisurely use of the Internet at work or during school is commonly called cyberloafing. The concept of cyberloafing originated in organizational studies exploring employees' non-work related Internet usage. Lim et al.⁵ defined cyberloafing as “any voluntary act of employees' using their companies' Internet access during office hours to surf non-job related Web sites for personal purposes.” As the Internet has filtered into education, so has cyberloafing. Some suggest that cyberloafing among students is even higher compared with employees,⁶ as students with more free time tend to spend it on their ICT cyberloafing.² However, cyberloafing behavior and its academic effects in educational settings are relatively underexplored.⁷

The existing research on cyberloafing in education offers interesting insights into measuring cyberloafing activity⁷ and has explored the propensity of cyberloafing in the classroom, demographic and individual factors that relate to cyberloafing in educational settings,^4,6,8 and the relationship between cyberloafing in the classroom and learning.^3,4,9 Despite these advances, the effects of cyberloafing on students' performance remain unclear as there are mixed results. For example, Wentworth and Middleton¹⁰ failed to find a relationship between the number of daily hours students spent on smartphones and social networks and their overall grade point average (GPA). Rashid and Asghar¹¹ found daily social media use to be positively correlated with GPA, but did not find a significant relationship between daily Internet use and GPA. Furthermore, a recent study by Doleck and Lajoie¹² reviewed 23 studies in an attempt to clarify the relationship between students' use of social networking sites and academic performance, finding mixed results and concluding more research is needed. One rational explanation for mixed findings is that in-class and out-of-class cyberloafing have different effects. The effects of cyberloafing in the classroom are relatively well established as it has been related with poor learner outcomes, such as lower classroom performance and GPA, because it forces students to multitask, reduces time, energy, and attention that could have been devoted to learning,¹³ and distracts students' attention and inhibits deeper learning.¹⁴

The effects of out-of-class cyberloafing are unexplored and unclear. Student cyberloafing has generally been associated with wasted time during class. For students, however, studying does not end when the school bell rings, it starts. Personal Internet usage outside of class at the reduction of study time can also be deemed cyberloafing. Research has shown a negative relationship between the amount of leisurely Internet activities college students engage in at home and GPA.¹⁵ On the other hand, out-of-class cyberloafing may also be useful for students' recovery from study stress and fatigue.¹⁶ From that perspective, some amount of cyberloafing might actually make students more productive in their studies. Thus, this study fills a gap in the literature by distinguishing between in-class and out-of-class cyberloafing and the effects of the two.

Existing research on cyberloafing in educational settings has been performed in western countries, namely the United States and Canada, but not in China. It seems inappropriate to generalize the results from studies performed in the west on Chinese students because students from eastern and western cultures take different approaches to learning. For example, Chinese students' Confucian culture results in their strong reliance on, and trust in, the classroom teacher.¹⁷ Chinese students also learn toward a collectivist approach among students, which results in cooperative study¹⁸ and peer-to-peer teaching¹⁹ outside the classroom. Chinese students also study longer than students in the west.²⁰ They also apply approaches that aim to build a knowledge base before developing a deeper understanding, which requires repetition, memorization, and time.²⁰ Therefore, consistent with established research, we propose that Chinese students' in-class cyberloafing will have a highly negative relationship with student outcomes such as GPA. However, we propose that out-of-class cyberloafing can have both positive and negative consequences for Chinese students and simply trying to draw a linear or direct relationship between two variables could impinge on a better understanding of the academic effects of student Internet use.¹² We expect that Chinese students may get some benefit from a limited amount of cyberloafing as a means of resting during long periods of study. We base that proposition on the Effort-Recovery Model (ERM)¹⁶ and Conservation of Resource Theory (COR).²¹ Excessive out-of-class cyberloafing, on the other hand, will put students behind in their studies, and result in reduced performance.

Hypotheses

Class time is limited and any distraction would seemingly reduce students' potential for learning. The use of laptop computers in the classroom may improve learning efficiency and effectiveness, but they are also a main source of distraction when students access the Internet, particularly for non-academic use or cyberloafing.¹³ In China, smartphones, rather than laptop computers, are the ICT of choice for college students accessing the Internet, but the problems of distraction logically still exist. Research shows that student engagement is positively correlated with academic achievement and GPA.^22,23 Given that cyberloafing during class reduces students' involvement and active engagement in classroom learning activities,¹⁴ it will negatively influence students' academic performance by distracting them from classroom learning processes and leading to more disengaged behaviors. Cyberloafing also consumes students' cognitive resources that could have otherwise been used for classroom learning, much like multitasking, which has also been found to have adverse impacts on classroom learning and academic achievement,^24–26 and the negative academic effects still hold true regardless of students' intelligence, motivation, and interest.^9,13 We expect large adverse effects when examining the relationship between students' in-class cyberloafing and academic performance in China, as Chinese students tend to pay close attention to the classroom teacher.

H1: There is a negative relationship between in-class cyberloafing and academic performance

Students' time and engagement are less limited when they study outside the classroom and Chinese students tend to spend long hours studying when comparing them to students from the west. Chinese students are saddled with high expectations from their parents²⁷ who, along with teachers in China, emphasize the importance of effort over innate ability as a result of Confucian cultural values.²⁸ Chinese believe in academic rigor and long hours of focused study.^29,30 Such requirements can lead to stress and coping and consume emotional resources, which can lead to anxiety, tension, fatigue, and other stress-related reactions. The COR²¹ posits that people are motivated to conserve and protect their energy resources and they become stressed when they are unable to recover. The ERM¹⁶ proposes that shortening stretches of work time using intermittent breaks allows individuals to return to full capacity after the break, while long work stretches impair individuals' ability to recover completely.

The ERM and COR would suggest that it is important for students to take a short break after taxing learning activities, such as a complex task or a long class. From that perspective, moderate cyberloafing, outside of scheduled class time, may be an effective stress reliever and actually improve student learning when they return to study after cyberloafing. In the workplace, Coker³¹ found that leisurely Internet browsing in the workplace replenishes employees' attention more than less enjoyable break time activities. Similarly, we propose that reasonable amounts of cyberloafing outside the classroom may have a positive influence on students' academic performance. However, if a student spends too much time and attention cyberloafing, we expect the opposite. Research has shown that overuse or excessive use of ICTs, in general, leads to reduced student engagement³² and study burnout, and depressive symptoms,³³ which in turn decreases academic performance.² This means that excessive cyberloafing by students is negatively related to their academic performance. Based on this discussion, we expect an inverted U-shaped link between out-of-class cyberloafing and academic performance. Thus, we make the following hypothesis:

H2: There is an inverted U-shaped relationship between out-of-class cyberloafing and academic performance

Method

The study uses a survey to collect self-reported data pertaining to the Internet usage of college students in China. That data, coupled with the students' GPAs, allow for testing of the relationship between cyberloafing and students' academic performance.

Measures

In-class cyberloafing

In-class cyberloafing is defined, in this study, as any voluntary act of accessing the Internet for non-academic purposes with a mobile Internet device during class. We used a seven-item, five-point, scale based on previous research by Akbulut et al.⁷ and Ravizza et al.,¹³ and a report from the China Internet Network Information Center about the various types of mobile Internet applications in China.¹ We modified Akbulut et al.⁷ and Ravizza et al.'s¹³ scale to fit the Chinese context. The seven items measure students' propensity to engage in “updating microblog,” “chatting with friends through WeChat,” “chatting with friends through QQ,” “checking Moments,” “checking Q-zone,” “playing online games,” and “watching online videos.” Participants self-reported their in-class activity by indicating if they “1 = never,” “2 = rarely,” “3 = sometimes,” “4 = generally,” and “5 = always” used the Internet in class. A composite score for the seven items was then tabulated and used as an overall measure of in-class cyberloafing (I_Cyberloafing).

Out-of-class cyberloafing

Out-of-class cyberloafing referred to any voluntary act of students' access to the Internet for non-academic purposes with their mobile devices on weekdays aside from scheduled class time. To measure it, the seven-item in-class cyberloafing scale received a slight semantic modification. Each student participant was asked to answer the same seven five-point scaled items ranging from “never” to “always” on the in-class cyberloafing scale, but it references their Internet use “after class” rather than “in class.” A composite score was also used as an overall measure of out-of-class cyberloafing (O_Cyberloafing).

Academic performance

The dependent variable, academic performance, was measured with participants' cumulative GPA.³⁴ GPA at Chinese universities is typically reported on a 0–100 scale rather than the 4.0 scale used at western universities. GPA was self-reported, as participants in this study were reluctant to provide the identification information to allow for collection of their actual GPA from the Teaching Affairs Office of the University in which the study was conducted. However, self-reported GPA has been shown to have a strong correlation with actual GPA.³⁵ Specifically, participants were asked to report their GPA on a five-point scale in which “1” = <75, “2” = between 75 and 79, “3” = between 80 and 84, “4” = between 85 and 90, and “5” = between 91 and 100. This measurement is similar to other research.³⁶

Control variables

Additional social and demographic variables, such as gender, students' year at the university (Grade), and duration (Duration) and frequency (Frequency) of students' daily mobile Internet usage, were included and collected in this study as control variables. A summary of the measures is presented in Table 1.

Table 1.

Demographics and Descriptive Statistics

		In-class group	Out-of-class group	Full sample
Variables	Measurements	Number (percent)	Number (percent)	Number (percent)
Gender	Male	218 (39.8)	303 (60.4)	521 (49.6)
	Female	330 (60.2)	199 (39.6)	529 (50.4)
Grade	First year	171 (31.2)	70 (13.9)	241 (23.0)
	Second year	199 (36.3)	148 (29.5)	347 (33.0)
	Third year	90 (16.4)	185 (36.9)	275 (26.2)
	Fourth year	88 (16.1)	99 (19.7)	187 (17.8)
GPA (academic performance)	GPA^a	2.76 (0.92)	2.82 (0.94)	2.80 (0.93)
Duration (duration of Internet use every day), hours	Less than 1	12 (2.2)	4 (0.8)	16 (1.5)
	Between 1 and 2	96 (17.5)	74 (14.7)	170 (16.2)
	Between 2 and 3	188 (34.3)	176 (35.1)	364 (34.7)
	Between 3 and 5	164 (29.9)	157 (31.3)	321 (30.6)
	More than 5	88 (16.1)	91 (18.1)	179 (17.0)
Frequency (frequency of Internet use every day)	Less than 5	57 (10.4)	22 (4.4)	79 (7.5)
	Between 6 and 10	200 (36.5)	143 (28.5)	343 (32.7)
	Between 11 and 20	161 (29.4)	180 (35.9)	341 (32.5)
	Between 21 and 30	90 (16.4)	84 (16.7)	174 (16.6)
	More than 31	40 (7.3)	73 (14.5)	113 (10.8)
Cyberloafing	Seven Item Composite Score^a	16.95 (4.57)	22.68 (3.89)	19.69 (5.13)

Note: ^aMean (SD).

GPA, grade point average; SD, standard deviation.

Data collection procedure and participants

In this study, the target subjects were students at a public university of ∼20,000 undergraduates in Eastern China. Similar to recent cyberloafing studies,^3,4,8,10 the questionnaires were sent to participants in the same university to control for university-related effects. The questionnaires were randomly administered to students studying in two libraries and four classrooms on campus to get a broad mix of students and student characteristics. Five hundred forty-eight students fully completed the in-class cyberloafing questionnaire, and form our in-class cyberloafing group. The same procedure was used to collect data for out-of-class cyberloafing. Data from 502 students were valid and form our out-of-class cyberloafing group. The sample size is adequate to perform regression analysis, and larger than the sample sizes in similar research.^3,4,8,10

The total sample of 1,050 Chinese college students consists of 521 males (49.6 percent) and 529 females (50.4 percent) and they ranged from first year (23.0 percent), second year (33.0 percent), third year (26.2 percent), and fourth year (17.8 percent) students, respectively. The group has a high amount of Internet usage as the majority of the participants (65.3 percent) reported spending 2–5 hours every day on the Internet, followed by more than 5 hours (17.0 percent) of duration. Furthermore, 32.7 percent of participants stated they used the Internet 6–10 times (Frequency), 32.5 percent used it 11–20 times, and 27.4 percent used it more than 21 times per day. The overall average composite score for the seven-item, five-point Cyberloafing scale is 19.69 (standard deviation [SD] = 5.13) (in-class group M = 16.95 and SD = 4.57; out-of-class group M = 22.68 and SD = 3.89), indicating that participants engage in a moderate level of cyberloafing.

The demographic characteristics and descriptive statistics for the sample are detailed in Table 1.

Results

To test H1, the negative relationship between students' in-class cyberloafing and academic performance, we performed a hierarchical linear regression analysis using the in-class dataset (N = 548). The results are shown in Table 2. Three regression models (model 1–model 3) were established, and the regression analysis was performed stepwise. The results show that model 2, incorporating gender, grade, duration, frequency, and I_Cyberloafing, is the best model (ΔF = 34.92, p < 0.001). The model does not incorporate the squared term for I_Cyberloafing, which represents an inverted U-shaped relationship. Model 2 accounts for 15.5 percent of the observed variance, and reports that I_Cyberloafing has a significantly negative relationship with GPA (β_{I_Cyberloafing} = −0.348, p < 0.001).

Table 2.

Regression Results for the Relationship Between In-Class Cyberloafing and Grade Point Average

	Model 1	Model 2	Model 3
Variables	B	β	β
Gender	0.411^***	0.382^***	0.381^***
Grade	−0.122^**	−0.103^**	−0.103^**
Duration	−0.184^***	−0.131^**	−0.129^**
Frequency	0.037	0.058	0.057
I_Cyberloafing		−0.348^***	−0.18
I_Cyberloafing^2			−0.033
R ²	0.101	0.155	0.156
ΔF	15.19^***	34.92^***	0.290

Note: β is the unstandardized regression coefficient.

p < 0.01, ^***p < 0.001.

A similar set of regressions were performed to test H2, the inverted U-shaped relationship between O_Cyberloafing and GPA. Table 3 indicates the regression results for the relationship between out-of-class cyberloafing and GPA. It shows that model 3 (inverted U-shaped effect) (ΔF = 12.75, p < 0.001) has the strongest effect. In addition, a relationship exists between O_Cyberloafing^2, which represents the inverted U-shaped relationship between O_Cyberloafing and participant's GPA (β_{O_Cyberloafing^2} = −0.329, p < 0.001), after controlling for gender, grade, and duration and frequency of Internet use every day.

Table 3.

Regression Results for the Relationship Between Out-of-Class Cyberloafing and Grade Point Average (N = 502)

	Model 1	Model 2	Model 3
Variables	B	B	β
Gender	0.481^***	0.475^***	0.473^***
Grade	0.034	0.036	0.033
Duration	−0.097^*	−0.107^*	−0.118^*
Frequency	−0.063	−0.072	−0.066
O_Cyberloafing		0.088	2.242^***
O_Cyberloafing^2			−0.329^***
R ²	0.075	0.077	0.100
ΔF	10.03^***	1.28	12.75^***

Note: ^*p < 0.05, ^***p < 0.001.

Discussion

H1 proposes a negative relationship between in-class cyberloafing and academic performance. Our findings show in-class cyberloafing to be negatively associated with Chinese students' GPAs. The finding is congruent with previous literature on in-class multitasking and academic performance,²⁵ which revealed that multitasking with certain ICTs was related to poorer semester GPAs, and research on nonacademic Internet use, which also was found to be inversely related to academic performance.¹³ Collectively, these findings, consistent across different countries, offer compelling evidence that students' academic performance is negatively affected by their in-class cyberloafing activities. The consistent findings suggest it is necessary to intervene and guide students' non-academic Internet use in the classroom. Policies, monitoring, or other measures might be useful mechanisms for reducing loafing.

Perhaps more interestingly, we found an inverted U-shaped relationship between Chinese students' out-of-class cyberloafing and academic performance, supporting H2. This is a positive response to Doleck and Lajoie who argued that simply trying to draw a linear or direct relationship between two variables could impinge on a better understanding of the academic effects of student Internet use.¹² This finding indicates that a moderate amount of cyberloafing out of class is associated with increased academic performance, but associated with reduced academic performance if the cyberloafing becomes excessive. This is consistent with COR and the ERM, and consistent with findings in the workplace context, which finds that cyberloafing can be a useful way to refresh cognitive capacities.^31,37

Smartphones and ICTs are an important part of college students' life.³⁸ With the wide use of the Internet by students and the ease in which they can access the Internet using ICTs, researchers have suggested it is important to identify when students' cyberloafing is constructive.³⁸ Our study is one of the first to offer some evidence that students' academic performance could benefit from a reasonable amount of cyberloafing. Our findings can be helpful in better understanding the positive and negative effects of cyberloafing in educational settings. As a practical implication, our results mean that there are different performance outcomes of in-class versus out-of-class cyberloafing; thus, different interventions should be employed to curb student cyberloafing in different contexts.

Limitations and future research

Several limitations should be considered when regarding these findings. The major limitation of this study is that it uses a cross-sectional survey, which means that it is difficult to reflect the dynamic effects of cyberloafing on academic performance. In future research, longitudinal studies of tracking data can be performed to analyze the relationships between cyberloafing and academic performance, and their changes over time. Another limitation is that cyberloafing activities in this study were self-reported. Although there is evidence to suggest self-reported cyberloafing is a reasonable measure of actual cyberloafing activity,¹³ individuals may still be reluctant to self-report some types of cyberloafing behavior, particularly socially undesirable behavior. To overcome the drawbacks associated with self-reported data, tracking actual cyberloafing by directly monitoring the frequency and duration of students' Internet use is recommended for future research.

Footnotes

Acknowledgments

This research was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China under Grant 71371013, the Humanity and Social Science Key Foundation of Education Committee of Anhui province under Grant SK2016A0151, the Philosophical and Social Science Foundation of Anhui Province under Grant AHSKY2016D16, and the Support Program for University Excellent Young Talents in Anhui Province.

Author Disclosure Statement

No competing financial interests exist.

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