Abstract
Abstract
Sense of presence is an important factor influencing the quality of the virtual reality (VR) experience. However, there is limited understanding of what factors affect presence in virtual environments. This study uses a qualitative methodology, specifically thematic analysis, to investigate factors affecting sense of presence in a VR social environment that has been designed for psychological assessment. After experiencing a virtual bar-room that contained interactions with multiple avatars, participants (n = 76) took part in a semistructured interview. Eight key themes and associated subthemes were identified: emotions about self (anxiety, paranoid ideation, and detachment), emotions about others (loneliness, retrospective emotions, and recognition of self), thoughts about self (memories and social judgment), thoughts about others (paranoid ideation and narrative), physiological reactions (anxiety and cybersickness), behavior of avatars (narrative, duration of interaction, and characteristics), interactivity with environment (movement and familiarity), and environmental characteristics (restrictions). Sense of presence was facilitated when the VR elicited genuine cognitive, emotional, and behavioral responses, and when participants created their own narrative about events. Presence decreased when participants experienced diminished agency and experienced physical impediments, such as cybersickness and awareness of apparatus and body movement. Strengths of the study include rich data generated by the qualitative approach and the large sample size. Limitations include lack of follow-up measuring longer-term effects.
Introduction
“S
Factors affecting presence in virtual environments have been studied since the 1990s. However, as VR devices and environments become more sophisticated, we need to refine and revisit this topic. Overtly social environments that aim to situate participants in sociocultural settings have rarely been used in previous VR studies on paranoid ideation, so it is important to investigate presence for such environments; qualitative methods have rarely been used in this area and may provide insights into participants' subjective experience of presence; and any newly designed VR environment will need to be validated as a measurement tool for psychological assessment.
In a previous study, participants found the VR environment elicited an acceptable quantitative measure of sense of presence; exposure to the VR environment elicited a range of cognitive, emotional, and behavioral components of social performance; and high trait paranoia participants reported higher state paranoia and greater negative components of social performance. 5 In this study, we use qualitative methodology (thematic analysis) to investigate factors affecting presence in a newly created VR social environment designed for psychological assessment of paranoid ideation in social situations.
Methods
Participants
Participants were recruited from a larger study (n = 609), 5 and had been selected for a VR substudy based on scoring high (≥85th percentile) or low (≤15th percentile) in trait paranoia, as measured by the Green et al. Paranoid Thought Scales. 6 Participants were included if aged 18–65 and fluent English speakers but excluded if they self-reported diagnosis of a serious mental health condition, a neurological disorder, learning disability, or epilepsy.
Procedure
Participants completed a VR task and then took part in a semistructured interview consisting of seven open questions on their thoughts, emotions, and behaviors in VR (e.g., “What did you think about your VR experience?”; “Do you think the people in the social situation had any intentions towards you?”), with one question specifically evaluating sense of presence (“How did you think the virtual social situation compared with your experience of being in real social situations?”). This question aimed to evaluate a state of consciousness reliant on the perception of “being there,” rather than just the similarity judgment between real and virtual social situations. The interview template was designed for measuring persecutory ideation in VR environments and was adapted from previous VR research.7,8 Participants were allocated a participant number based on their participation in a larger study. They were paid £10. Interviews were audio recorded, transcribed, and anonymized.
VR environment and apparatus
Participants wore an Oculus Rift Developer version 2 head-mounted display, with noise canceling headphones, and moved in the VR with a combination of a computer control pad and by physically turning their body direction. The virtual social scenario was a party in a bar-room, lasting ∼5 minutes. Following previous research, participants were given the following instruction: “While you are in the bar please try to get an impression of what the people in the bar think about you and what you think about them. If someone asks you a question, try to reply to them.” 9 The bar was populated by female and male avatars that appeared to be in their 20s or 30s, and represented various ethnicities. In the bar, participants were initially met by the host of the party and were asked to introduce themselves. In response, avatars turned toward the participants and greeted them. There were then four brief group interactions. At the final interaction, participants were asked about their favorite television program by a male avatar.
Analysis
Interviews were analyzed using Nvivo11. Thematic analysis was employed with the aim of understanding factors affecting presence. Themes were distinguished into internal and external factors. 10 Researchers determined whether presence was increased or decreased based on subjective experience reported by participants. Subjective experiences that indicated increases were cognitive, emotional, or behavioral responses that appeared to be reliant on their perception of “being there” in the virtual social situation. Decreases were indicated by equivalent deficits in perception of “being there.” On this basis, an evaluation of “increased” or “decreased” presence was recorded. Three researchers (S.R., S.E., and L.V.) independently coded transcripts for themes. Analysis was regularly discussed among researchers and identified themes compared until a consensus was reached.
Results
There were 76 participants and the mean age was 31.45 (SD 10.706, range 18–65); there were 49 women and 65% were of white ethnicity. Eight key themes with associated subthemes were identified: emotions about self (anxiety, paranoid ideation, and detachment), emotions about others (loneliness, retrospective emotions, and recognition of self), thoughts about self (memories and social judgment), thoughts about others (paranoid ideation and narrative), physiological reactions (anxiety and cybersickness), behavior of avatars (narrative, duration of interaction, and characteristics), interactivity with environment (movement and familiarity), and environmental characteristics (restrictions). Table 1 provides details of themes and subthemes.
Key Factors Affecting Sense of Presence in a Virtual Reality Social Environment
VR, virtual reality.
Discussion
The aim of this study was to investigate factors that affect sense of presence in a virtual social environment, which had previously been shown to generate acceptable sense of presence. 5 These more-detailed qualitative findings suggest that presence was facilitated when the VR elicited genuine cognitive, emotional, and behavioral responses; and when participants created their own narrative about events or situated themselves in a sociocultural web 3 integrated with memories. Emphasis on narrative is consistent with research that highlights the connection with immersion in VR,3,11,12 and may be an important area for future research. These findings confirm the potential of VR as an adjunct to therapy to elicit real-time emotional, cognitive and behavioral responses similar to real life. 13
Presence decreased when participants experienced diminished agency and physical impediments, such as cybersickness and awareness of apparatus and body movement. Body movement 14 and cybersickness15,16 are well-known target areas in the design of new apparatus. Strengths of the study include the large sample size and rich data generated by semistructured interviews employing a qualitative approach so that we could gain insight into participants' subjective experience of presence. Limitations include lack of follow-up measuring longer-term effects.
Footnotes
Acknowledgments
The study proposal was reviewed by service user researchers at the Service User Advisory Group, Biomedical Research Centre, IoPPN. The study was approved by the Psychiatry, Nursing and Midwifery Research Ethics Subcommittee, King's College London (HR-14/15-0859). The authors acknowledge financial support from the National Institute for Health Research (NIHR) Biomedical Research Centre for Mental Health at South London and Maudsley NHS Foundation Trust and King's College London (PI: Valmaggia, Garety). The authors thank Clare Evans, Nikolaos Sarras, and Keren Yeboah for research assistance. The views expressed are those of the author(s) and not necessarily those of the NHS, the NIHR or the Department of Health.
Author Disclosure Statement
No competing financial interests exist.