Abstract
Given the worldwide rise of populism and extremism, new online risks, such as hate speech and fake news, have emerged, and current events, such as the COVID-19 pandemic or Russia's war against Ukraine, have proliferated these phenomena. Hate speech and fake news can have damaging effects on individuals, communities, and societies by distorting public opinions; undermining trust in reliable sources of information; fostering discrimination, prejudice, and intolerance; increasing anxiety, stress, and fear; and contributing to the breakdown of trust, social bonds, and peaceful coexistence. A society plagued by hate speech and fake news is less likely to work toward common goals and address shared challenges. We are beginning to address these 21st-century challenges in research.
It has become clear that tackling these problems requires a multifaceted approach involving various scientific disciplines, media literacy education, responsible journalism, fact checking, promoting diverse perspectives, fostering inclusive dialogue, and holding (online) media platforms accountable for the content they host. On the other hand, it is essential to protect freedom of speech while recognizing the responsibility to prevent the spread of hate speech and fake news.
We open the special issue with two studies on hate speech among young people. In a cross-sectional sample of 6,033 young people (aged 12–16 years) from eight European countries, Bedrosova et al. investigated characteristics associated with exposure to online hate speech. Their findings revealed distinctions between intentional and unintentional online hate speech exposure. In another contribution to this special issue by Stefanelli et al., 666 high school students participated in a three-wave longitudinal study. As one of the first longitudinal studies in this age group, this study validates a new scale to measure online ethnic hate speech and extends current knowledge by investigating the longitudinal relationship between online hate speech involvement and xenophobia. The study's results highlight the relevance of encouraging positive attitudes in young people, such as tolerance, and increasing their readiness to stand up against hate speech.
Six studies included in this special issue surveyed adults' self-reports, including expert groups (e.g., computer science specialists, human rights activists, lawyers, and social workers) and the general population. Weber et al. interviewed 28 experts from research and practice across 16 countries on their perceptions of digital determinants for online hate speech perpetration and possibilities for technology-driven interventions for prevention. Their Delphi study revealed insights on how features of social media platforms can be determinants that facilitate online hate perpetration and crucial mechanisms of preventive interventions. Papcunová et al. compared the perception of hate speech toward migrants in online comments between experts (N = 27) and the public (N = 649) from Slovakia. Their study showed significant differences between experts and the public. While experts perceived comments as more emotionally damaging than the general population, the public group tended to agree more with anti-migrant hateful comments. In a quota sample online survey among 1,791 German adults (aged 18–69 years), Mohseni investigated the motives of online hate speech involvement in different roles. The study showed that aggressive motivations were not linked to online hate speech perpetration and that a motive for active bystanders was being a role model for others. This study stresses the need for more research to understand the motives for engaging in hate speech from different perspectives, including the development of valid instruments.
Another study by Jung et al. utilized the theory of planned behavior in a sample of 809 South Korean adults (aged 19–59 years) to understand which factors influence the willingness to post race-related hate speech. Informal social control partially mediated the association between attitude, subjective norms, and behavioral intention to post online race-related hate speech. Additionally, informal social control fully mediated the association between perceived behavioral control and behavioral intention. The findings revealed new insights into the correlates of adult hate speech perpetration. Stahel and Baier investigated potential differences in consequences of online hate for various groups of involvement in hate speech in a representative sample of 16- to 80-year-old Internet users in Switzerland. One interesting finding was that vicarious victimization decreased life satisfaction and increased loneliness more strongly than witnessing hate speech but less strongly than being personally victimized.
In an online experiment with 478 adult U.S. residents, Wang and Kim focused on the content moderation of hate speech. They investigated how moderation agents (i.e., artificial intelligence [AI], human, human–AI collaboration) and removal explanations (with vs. without) affect users' perceptions and acceptance of removal decisions. They found that the participants reported high levels of perceived trustworthiness and acceptance of removal decisions regardless of the type of moderation agent. However, removal decisions made jointly by humans and AI were perceived as more trustworthy than those made by humans alone with explanations only.
Two studies in this issue conducted research based on online content (i.e., posts, comments, etc.) gathered from Twitter and Reddit. Wheeler et al. investigated temporal changes in the frequency of anti-Asian hate speech and counter-hate. Based on the data of 1,000 Twitter users, the latent growth curve revealed a steady increase in anti-Asian hate speech keywords throughout the early months of the COVID-19 pandemic. The frequency of counter-hate keywords remained low at first and then increased, most likely in response to violent attacks against Asian victims in the United States. Similarly, Costello et al. analyzed textual data posted by social media users on Twitter and Reddit using natural language processing techniques. Their analyses revealed empirical evidence for warning signs of radicalization (i.e., fixation, group identification, and energy bursts) targeting individuals of Asian descent before and after the outbreak of COVID-19.
Two studies in the special issue focused on fake news. In a sample of 324 adults aged between 40 and 68 years, Ruggieri et al. investigated the short- and long-term persistence in memory of real and fake news and the source that presented it (e.g., an untrustworthy advocate). Fake news was better remembered after 1 week, while no significant differences were observed in the long-term retrieval of the publication's source. The message containing the fake news appears to be better remembered than the credibility of the source, which could explain the persistence of misinformation.
Johnson and Kromk examined psychological (e.g., self-esteem) and communicative (e.g., argumentativeness) variables related to the decision to denounce or ignore fake news on social media platforms among 218 social media users aged between 18 and 72 years. Results showed that the importance of correcting misinformation was positively associated with the predisposition to denounce in close relationships, while higher self-esteem reduced the denouncement of fake news from strangers. Argumentativeness consistently increased the likelihood of denouncing fake news. These findings can assist in designing more effective campaigns to combat fake news.
We hope you will enjoy reading the papers included in this special issue. Furthermore, we trust that the ideas presented therein will be of practical value in future research concerning hate speech and fake news throughout various stages of life. Our objective is that the studies encompassed in this special issue yield powerful insights into the formulation of policies and strategies for intervention, intending to reduce exposure to these contemporary challenges. We sincerely thank all the contributors and reviewers who have played a vital role in this special issue.