Abstract
The metaverse, an emerging digital universe blurring the lines between reality and virtuality, offers a view into a future where human interaction transcends physical boundaries. In this article, we analyze the multidimensional facets of the metaverse, scrutinizing the landscape of challenges and opportunities it offers. The article delves into the challenges faced by human society in adapting to the metaverse, including the digital divide, ethical dilemmas, the level of trust, and the potential erosion of social and physical reality. Amid the allure of boundless creativity, questions arise about the very essence of human experience—identity, empathy, social relationships, life satisfaction, and the nature of reality itself. The metaverse, with all its complexities, challenges us to redefine the boundaries of human interaction, urging us to tread cautiously while embracing the limitless possibilities it presents. As we venture “toward a humane metaverse,” we must navigate the intricate interplay of technology and humanity, shaping a future where the virtual realm enhances, rather than diminishes, the richness of the human experience.
Introduction
The concept of the metaverse, as introduced by science fiction author Neal Stephenson in his 1992 novel Snow Crash, has since become a central theme in discussions about the future of digital technology and online interactions. 1 In Stephenson's vivid imagination, the metaverse was described as a dynamic and immersive three-dimensional digital realm, where users could engage in a shared virtual reality (VR) experience. Users can access the metaverse by wearing goggles and earphones, and they can customize their digital avatars to interact with other humans and software agents. The metaverse was also a place where hackers, corporations, and cults compete for power and influence, and where a dangerous computer virus threatens to infect users' brains.
Stephenson's vision of the metaverse struck a chord with readers, sparking contemplation about the potential and pitfalls of such a digital space. Over the years, technology has rapidly advanced, bringing us closer to the realization of this imaginative concept. Today, the term “metaverse” is commonly used to describe a collective virtual shared space that is created by the convergence of virtually enhanced physical reality and digitally mediated environments. 2 In the metaverse, our actions in the physical realm have a direct impact on our experiences in the digital world, and vice versa. 3 This interaction is made possible through the existence of “digital twins”—virtual replicas of real objects intricately linked to their physical counterparts. Through these digital twins, facilitated by the constant use of hybrid glasses blending VR and augmented reality (AR), we gain the ability to engage seamlessly with both real and digital elements.
For instance, by wearing these glasses, we can navigate our physical surroundings while simultaneously interacting with people and digital entities in the virtual realm. If we move in the real world, our virtual avatar mirrors our movements; if the avatar is touched in the digital space, we receive tactile sensations in the physical body. Moreover, activities initiated in the virtual world, such as starting a digital washing machine, trigger corresponding actions in the physical world, effectively merging the boundaries between our tangible reality and the immersive digital universe. In this metaverse, users can immerse themselves in a wide array of activities, ranging from social interactions and gaming to education and commerce, all within a richly detailed, computer-generated environment. 4
The metaverse concept has transcended the boundaries of literature and has become a focal point in the tech industry, with companies and developers actively working to bring this vision to life. VR and AR technologies, combined with artificial intelligence and blockchain systems, are key drivers in the development of the metaverse. As these technologies continue to evolve, the metaverse holds the promise of transforming the way we connect, collaborate, and experience the digital world. However, it also raises concerns such as privacy, online addiction, and the digital divide, highlighting the need for careful consideration and ethical frameworks in its development.
In this article, which summarizes the contents of the Special Issue “Humane Metaverse: Opportunities and Challenges toward the Development of a Humane-Centered Metaverse,” we attempt to analyze the multidimensional facets of the metaverse, scrutinizing the landscape of challenges and opportunities it offers. The article delves into the challenges faced by human society in adapting to the metaverse, including the digital divide, ethical dilemmas, the level of trust, and the potential erosion of social and physical reality. Amid the allure of boundless creativity, questions arise about the very essence of human experience—identity, empathy, social relationships, life satisfaction, and the nature of reality itself. The metaverse, with all its complexities, challenges us to redefine the boundaries of human interaction, urging us to tread cautiously while embracing the limitless possibilities it presents.
Neuroscience of the Metaverse: The Effects of the Metaverse on our Brain
The predictive coding framework applied to the human mind challenges the conventional understanding of perception. According to this perspective, our brain doesn't passively record the world as it is but rather actively constructs perceptions based on predictions.5,6 These predictions, or priors, are derived from past experiences. In essence, our brain relies on probabilities and previous expectations to interpret the state of the world. Instead of merely processing sensory signals, perception is an outcome of prediction.
When our brain encounters new information, it goes through a constant cycle of prediction and error correction. Mental representations, essentially the brain's working hypotheses about the world and the body, confront incoming sensory inputs. When there's a mismatch between predictions and actual sensory data (known as prediction errors), the brain revises its prior expectations. This revision process occurs through the interplay of top-down processes (representations of the world based on expectations) and bottom-up sensory inputs. 7
The metaverse operates on a similar principle: it leverages sophisticated computer technology to construct a simulated environment that users can interact with as though they are physically present within it. In essence, a metaverse experience seeks to anticipate and replicate the sensory outcomes of a user's movements, presenting them with a visual and auditory environment that closely mirrors what they would perceive in the real world. 3
To achieve this seamless integration of the virtual and physical realms, the hardware continuously tracks the user's motions in real time. Advanced sensors and cameras capture even the subtlest movements, allowing the system to monitor changes in position, orientation, and gestures precisely. Meanwhile, the VR software, powered by complex algorithms, dynamically adjusts the visuals displayed on the user's screen or headset. These adjustments occur instantaneously, reflecting the user's movements and interactions within the virtual space.
Much like the human brain, the metaverse maintains an intricate model or simulation of both the user's body and the surrounding environment. This predictive model serves as a digital replica, a virtual representation of the user's physical presence within the digital space. By continuously updating this model based on real-time user input, the metaverse ensures that the sensory feedback provided to the user remains consistent with their actions and movements.
This predictive modeling doesn't stop at just the user's body; it extends to the entire digital environment. The metaverse anticipates how objects within the virtual world will react to user interactions, ensuring a lifelike experience. For instance, if a user picks up a virtual cup, the system predicts the cup's weight and texture and how it should respond to movements, providing the user with a convincing sense of holding an actual object.
Naturally, for the metaverse experience to be convincing and immersive, the digital model aims to resemble closely the internal representation created by the human brain. The system strives to replicate not only the physical aspects of the user's body but also the intricate processes of perception, cognition, and spatial awareness related to it. The closer the alignment between the digital model and the brain's internal representation, the more profound the sense of presence and realism an individual experiences within the metaverse. 8
In summary, the predictive coding interpretation of the human mind emphasizes the active role of the brain in constructing perceptions based on predictions and updating these perceptions through continuous interaction with the environment. This perspective underscores the brain's dynamic nature, constantly adapting to new information to refine our understanding of the world. In the realm of technology, particularly in the context of the metaverse, this understanding of the brain's predictive processes holds significant implications. By mirroring the brain's predictive coding, the metaverse becomes increasingly adept at providing users with personalized, lifelike experiences.
The Human Side of the Metaverse: Social Interaction and Learning
As the metaverse continues to evolve, the synergy between predictive coding theory and technological advancements becomes increasingly apparent. The fusion of neuroscience principles with cutting-edge technology propels us toward a future where the boundaries between the real and virtual worlds blur, creating a realm where human experience is significantly transformed. This opportunity may address one of the prevailing weaknesses of the contemporary social media landscape: the rarefaction of social experience. We know that environments created by social media companies have come under scrutiny due to their reliance on algorithms (artificial intelligence systems). Studies have shown that these algorithms, designed to sustain user engagement, can impact individuals during their formative developmental years, potentially influencing their cognitive and emotional growth positively, neutrally, or negatively. The sheer volume of information, coupled with algorithms designed to capture attention, often leads to shallow engagements, leaving users craving deeper, more authentic connections.
To address this issue, in their article “Searching for the Metaverse: Neuroscience of Physical and Digital Communities,” Giuseppe Riva et al. 9 explore a critical question for cyberpsychology research: What sets apart physical communities from their online counterparts? The article delves into social and cognitive neuroscience research on social networks and collective intentionality to explore this question. As underlined by neuroscience research, physical communities are rooted in specific locations, triggering neurobiological and cognitive processes, such as shared attention and behavioral synchrony, and fostering diverse social networks supported by collective wisdom.
Digital technologies, while liberating in terms of activities and group choices, lack physical co-presence, hindering the activation of these crucial cognitive processes. Consequently, digital communities tend to comprise individuals with shared interests and knowledge (communities of practice), disrupting the wisdom of the crowd. This can lead to polarization, disproportionate influence from key users, and unequal social capital distribution. However, emerging technologies such as the metaverse, particularly VR and AR, have shown the potential to engage the same neurobiological and cognitive processes as real-world environments. If the existing flaws in these technologies are addressed, they could facilitate more meaningful and constructive interactions in online communities.
Following this path, in their article “Identifying Factor Associations Emerging from an Academic Metaverse Event for Scholars in a Post-pandemic World: Social Presence and Technology Self-efficacy in
The study found that a higher sense of social presence and technology self-efficacy enhances the online meeting experience and academic interactions. Social presence in the metaverse-like setting is a strong predictor of increased academic interactions. However, social presence does not directly affect academic event satisfaction, possibly due to the participants' strong internal motivation and desire for enjoyable academic interactions. Technology self-efficacy positively influences satisfaction and academic interactions, emphasizing its importance in metaverse-like conferencing environments. Additionally, perceived satisfaction does not significantly enhance academic interactions, possibly because of participants' high internal motivation and specific field expertise. This research provides valuable insights into creating a conducive environment for future metaverse-like academic events.
Moreover, with the rise of metaverse social platforms such as ENGAGE and AltSpace VR, where students and teachers collaborate, immersive VR (IVR) has the potential to revolutionize learning experiences and educational interactions. Understanding stakeholders' attitudes toward adopting this technology, especially considering the new opportunities provided by metaverse applications based on IVR, is crucial for successful implementation in educational contexts. Despite these possibilities, little is known about students' attitudes toward IVR in education.
In their article “Learning in the Metaverse: Are University Students Willing to Learn in Immersive Virtual Reality?” Di Natale et al. (this issue, p. 28) conducted a survey with 329 undergraduate students from various Italian universities. Utilizing the unified theory of acceptance and use of technology (UTAUT), they predicted students' intention to adopt IVR for learning. Additionally, they explored the influence of individual factors, such as learning styles, perceptions of affordances, and personal innovativeness, on their attitudes toward IVR. Their analysis revealed that UTAUT constructs, including performance expectancy, effort expectancy, social influence, and facilitating conditions, were the primary predictors of students' intention to use IVR in education. Individual factors had minimal impact in comparison. These findings offer valuable insights for researchers and educators aiming to integrate IVR effectively into educational settings.
The Humane Side of the Metaverse: Identity, Well-Being, and Social Interaction
As the metaverse evolves, it becomes imperative to examine the intricate interplay between the metaverse and human identity critically, delving deep into the psychological, sociological, and philosophical dimensions that shape our sense of self in this digital realm.
With its vast and intricate digital landscapes, the metaverse provides individuals with unprecedented opportunities to construct, experiment with, and redefine their identities. In this dynamic virtual environment, users can create avatars, manipulate appearances, and engage in social interactions, leading to a profound question: How does this digital playground influence our perception of self and the construction of identity?
In their article “The Double-Edged Influence of Self-Expansion in the Metaverse: A Two-Wave Panel Assessment of Identity Perception, Self-Esteem, and Life Satisfaction,” Jeong-woo Jang et al. (this issue, p. 37) investigate how self-expansion experiences in the metaverse affect users' perception of identity, self-esteem, and life satisfaction. The researchers conducted a two-wave panel study over 3 months with 486 participants in VRChat, a popular social VR platform. As expected, an increase in self-expansion experiences in VR environments positively influenced users' self-esteem and life satisfaction. However, if self-expansion led to a lack of coherence in the self-concept, causing identity disjunction or self-discrepancy, it negatively affected self-esteem and life satisfaction. The study shows that expanding one's identity through immersive metaverse experiences can be beneficial, but only if it doesn't create a disconnect between virtual and real-life identities. The article emphasizes the need to explore the opportunities and risks in the metaverse, highlighting the importance of understanding self-expansion experiences in immersive media.
To explore the potential role of the metaverse in social interactions further, new insights may come from social learning theory, emphasizing the interplay of interpersonal, behavioral, and environmental cues in shaping youth behavior. In the ever-changing landscape of digital spaces, younger generations must be equipped to navigate systems that curate their content exposure, timing, and frequency of engagement.
In their article “A Humane Social Learning-Informed Metaverse: Cultivating Positive Technology Experiences in Digital Learning Environments,” Andrew Villamil and Sará King (this issue, p. 47) aim to define digital learning environments, address existing concerns in digital spaces, and propose a positive developmental psychology framework. The text discusses how social learning theory provides insights into behavior and environment in the digital world. It emphasizes the gradual behavior changes observed during online interactions, influenced by digital learning environments. However, these environments might create a false sense of authenticity and freedom due to rapid alterations by technology algorithms. The text raises questions about positive behaviors, identity shifts, and the impact of algorithms in these spaces. It also explores the mediation of adverse childhood experiences and strategies to counter negative interactions. The authors suggest that understanding social learning offers valuable insights for researchers and designers, helping them support healthy human development and create effective metaverse experiences. By concentrating on positive outcomes and employing a constructive developmental approach, we can guide the adoption of the most effective well-being strategies in the digital spaces, shaping behaviors and surroundings that enhance our ability to use technology in advantageous ways.
While much speculation surrounds the impact of the metaverse on everyday activities such as retail, entertainment, and social networking, little attention has been given to its potential influence on religion. The review article “The Metaverse, Religious Practice and Wellbeing: A Narrative Review” by Justin Thomas et al. (this issue p. 57) delves into current research on online religious practices and the use of immersive digital technologies in religious contexts. By exploring this, the authors aim to discuss how the metaverse, as an immersive online technology, could reshape religion and religious practices. Religion holds immense significance for billions globally, shaping social identities and bolstering psychological well-being. The metaverse's emergence might offer a novel way to connect with this age-old source of human fulfillment. As discussed in the article, major tech companies such as Meta are actively exploring its potential in the religious domain. Meta's vision of the metaverse emphasizes social presence, aligning with congregational activities. They have expressed the aspiration for hosting religious services in VR spaces and employing AR for faith-based education.
Organizations such as
However, any rose has its thorns. In the article “In the Metaverse We (Mis)Trust? Third-Level Digital (In)Equality, Social Phobia, Neo-Luddism, and Blockchain/Cryptocurrency Transparency in the AI-Powered Metaverse,” Seunga Venus Jin (this issue, p. 64) presents findings from three surveys exploring the impact of digital inequality and consumer trust on metaverse adoption. The findings emphasize the crucial role of trust in encouraging metaverse adoption. Specifically, marketing efforts should focus on building trust in the metaverse platform. For example, trust in blockchain technology is key for attracting brands, artists, and content creators to the nonfungible token (NFT) market. Moreover, understanding consumers' personalities and individual differences is vital for market segmentation. Addressing digital inequality (“the rich get richer”) is essential in emerging Web 3.0 environments. Policymakers must consider digital inequality in shaping legislation related to AI-driven metaverse and NFT initiatives, particularly in education, the labor market, and commerce.
Metaverse and Media: A Double-Edged Sword
As an emerging technology with the potential for widespread immersive use, the public's awareness and understanding of the metaverse are likely significantly influenced by how it is portrayed in the media. In their article: “Who Is Invited to the Metaverse? Analyzing Media Coverage of an Emerging Virtual World,” Sophie Maddocks et al. (this issue, p. 76) discuss the framing of the metaverse in U.S. news media, exploring the target audience identified by the media and contemplating the potential impact on public perceptions and involvement with the metaverse. Specifically, the study investigates which individuals and entities are highlighted or disregarded in media depictions of the metaverse.
To address this inquiry, a systematic analysis of 526 U.S. news articles was undertaken, drawing from three different media databases. The findings reveal that the media often portrays the metaverse as a corporate domain primarily accessible to those with financial means, including investors, technology experts, and consumers. Users lacking financial resources and individuals from marginalized groups are seldom featured in media coverage. Interestingly, despite these disparities, the majority of metaverse coverage is descriptive, with only 11% of articles offering critical analysis. These findings raise important questions concerning the commercialization, exclusion, and inequalities present in the metaverse.
The article “How Cognitive Absorption Influences Responses to Immersive Narratives of Environmental Threats” by Daniel Pimentel and Sri Kalyanaraman (this issue, p. 83) explores how nongovernmental organizations are increasingly utilizing immersive technologies in the metaverse, such as 360° videos and VR, to portray environmental threats. The effectiveness of this type of immersive storytelling relies on the realistic experience it provides, akin to real-life exposure. However, the psychological mechanisms underlying users' environmental responses to immersive stories are not well understood. In three controlled experiments, the article investigated the impact of immersive technologies' unique features (e.g., interactivity, modality) in environmental narratives and their influence on pro-environmental outcomes.
The presented findings have practical and theoretical implications, shedding light on the effective use of immersive technologies for environmental communication. They also provide insights for environmental organizations considering Metaverse platforms to convey environmental threats.
Conclusions
In continuity with another recent special issue aimed at exploring virtual emotions in the metaverse, 10 this special issue has explored the humane metaverse—a virtual environment that simulates reality and allows social interactions—from different perspectives and domains. The metaverse, with all its complexities, challenges us to redefine the boundaries of human interaction, urging us to tread cautiously while embracing the limitless possibilities it presents.
As we venture “toward a humane metaverse,” we must navigate the intricate interplay of technology and humanity, shaping a future where the virtual realm enhances, rather than diminishes, the richness of the human experience.
A critical point discussed in this opening editorial is a significant similarity between the human mind and the metaverse: both use predictions/simulations to create perceptions of reality. 3 Predictive coding is a neuroscientific framework that proposes that the brain constructs perceptions based on predictions from past experiences and updates them through interaction with the environment. Likewise, the metaverse uses computer technology to construct a digital model of the user's body and the environment, and to provide sensory feedback that matches the user's actions.
The metaverse aims to align its digital model with the brain's internal representation, creating a sense of presence and realism for the user. This also enables the metaverse, unlike traditional social media, to engage the same processes involved in social interaction in real-world environments. This feature can help us understand the potentials and challenges of the metaverse for human development and well-being. Starting from this vision, the articles of the special issue have addressed four main themes that are relevant for understanding the potentials and challenges of the metaverse for human development and well-being.
The first theme is learning, which is enhanced by the metaverse's ability to facilitate the simulation of interactions and to overcome the social presence gap of traditional distance learning platforms.11,12 To date, studies exploring the psychological processes of learning experiences in the metaverse are still limited, and this is in line with the recent availability of supportive platforms such as EngageVR, which allow the promotion of interactive learning experiences. However, the articles in this special issue not only show how the metaverse can support learning processes in academic contexts 13 but also highlight the need to understand the level of acceptance of these virtual platforms by the various stakeholders.
The second theme is identity and social interactions, which are influenced by the representation and embodiment of oneself in the digital avatar.14,15 The articles investigate the relationship between self-coherence versus self-discrepancy processes and individual well-being in the metaverse, as well as the role of authenticity in designing positive experiences. 16 The articles also demonstrate how the metaverse can benefit younger generations by enhancing their sense of social presence and facilitating supportive interactions. 17
The third theme is participation, which is fostered by the metaverse's ability to create virtual communities that satisfy a sense of belonging and overcome the limits of isolation and loneliness. 18 The articles examine how the metaverse can support participation in practices with profound meanings, such as religious ones, and how it can create a sense of community among people who share common interests and values.
The fourth theme is media, which can use the metaverse to inform, disseminate, and tell stories aimed at raising awareness and encouraging specific behaviors. The articles illustrate how the metaverse can be used as a tool for journalism, education, and entertainment, and how it can create immersive and engaging experiences for the audience.
One important theme that has not been investigated in this special issue is health, which is a promising domain for the application of the metaverse.19,20 The metaverse has the potential to impact healthcare by creating new means for delivering care, lowering costs, and improving patient outcomes. 21 Future studies are called upon to assess the scope of these opportunities empirically.
In conclusion, this special issue contributes to advancing knowledge on the humane metaverse, a virtual environment that offers numerous opportunities for enhancing self-development, social relationships, sense of belonging, learning, and care processes. However, these opportunities also pose complex challenges that require multidisciplinary design and impact evaluation skills. The challenge is open, and we hope that this special issue will inspire further research in this important area.