Abstract
Abstract
Although some research has been done on the idea of stardom in sports, the majority of work has not used the framework of phenomenological imagination to analyze sports images. Building upon Bachelard's philosophy, the current study examines the effect of the four essential elements/metaphors (earth, fire, air, and water), considered by many ethnologists as “hormones of prescientific thought,” on the psychology of fans and the reception of sports figures. In this article, the authors analyze fans' images of two of the most popular sports celebrities in France: soccer player Zinédine Zidane and judoka David Douillet. A questionnaire was administered to 878 adolescents in the region of Provence in France to assess their impressions of these two sportsmen. Results indicated that a majority of subjects associated images of earth with Douillet and images of fire and earth with Zidane. The authors discuss the implications of these elements in shaping the archetypical images of athletes and other celebrities.
In what distant depths or skies
Burnt the fire of thine eyes?
—William Blake
Introduction
The four elements in human history
Many scholars throughout human history have discussed the importance of the four essential elements. In antiquity, the Greek philosopher Empedocles believed that all matter in the world was comprised of these elements. In fact, Empedocles argued that these elements were spiritual manifestations as well as material essences, and he used them to characterize Greek gods and goddesses, including Zeus (fire), Hera (air), Aidoneus (earth), and Nestis (water). Later, Plato described the human body as a mixture of these four elements and Aristotle used the elements combined with the four qualities of hot, dry, wet, and cold to characterize the environment.
Hippocrates and Galen, considered to be the founders of medicine, built their theories about the human body using the four elements. Specifically, they associated the elements with the four humors, including phlegm (water), blood (air), bile (fire), and atrabilious (earth).
Others have used the four elements to characterize the human psyche. For example, Descartes built his theories about personality according to these elements. Later, psychologist Jung (1964) likely drew on the elements in developing his four basic personality archetypes.
Ethnologist Frazer (1922) also argued that the elements were important tools for understanding human behavior. In The Golden Bough he linked various myths with the four elements, especially about fire, which he believed to be the most important invention of humanity.
Theoretical background: the work of Gaston Bachelard
We believe that the research of French philosopher Bachelard (1938, 1942, 1943, 1947) is particularly relevant to this study, because he discussed the importance of the four elements for the interpretation of images. Indeed, Bachelard called the four elements the “hormones” of human imagination, and he argued that they are used, consciously or unconsciously, in our daily thoughts. He suggested that these elements form the foundation of poetry, metaphor, and other imagery and, thereby, allow us to “see” forces, such as power and will, which otherwise cannot be seen (Bachelard, 1943, p. 55).
According to Bachelard, fire is the element that animates things because it provides the power to act. He argued that fire is the most mysterious element because it can be invisible but present; for example, we can find it hidden in alcohol (fire water) and gunpowder. Fire can be gentle, insidious, rebellious, or violent. Fire is the principle of life and, at the same time, the principle of death. For example, it can destroy a forest and, at the same time, kill useless herbs and enrich the ground.
Bachelard argued that the importance of earth is substance and stability. The products of earth are grounded and can be very difficult to move, and as such they symbolize resistance to movement. Thus, humans who work with products of the earth must be active with matter, and so earth images also arouse the motivation to work. In addition, earth images signify refuge, as in the case of the mother's womb, the home, and the cave.
According to Bachelard, the significance of air, on the other hand, is not substance but movement. Images of travel are often associated with air, as are images of freedom. In their essence, all air images have a future, because they provide a vehicle for flight.
Finally, Bachelard wrote that water is characterized by images of liquidity and flow, and as such they do not have the consistency or stability of earth images or the force of fire images. Throughout history, water has been associated with femininity and melancholy, though when water becomes violent—as in the case of currents and torrents—it may have more masculine connotations.
These four elements continue to be used today by various researchers to study and understand a wide variety of topics, including art, poetry, ritual, media, advertising, astrology, tarot cards, and other topics (see Dumézil, 1941; Eliade, 1952; Mauss, 1966; Durand, 1969; Alleau, 1976; Sauvageot, 1987; Brocard, 1992). We are interested, however, in how researchers use these elements to study images of sports and sports celebrities.
The four elements in the study of sports and sports celebrities
Various scholars have used, explicitly and implicitly, the four elements to study sports. Perhaps the best known use of air imagery in sport has been in the analyses of former basketball player Michael “Air” Jordan (see Andrews, 1996; Denzin, 1996; Kellner, 1996; Wilson & Sparks, 1996). This element is typically associated with the commercialization of Jordan a la the “Air Jordan” products of Nike, though other companies such as airlines have coopted this image as well. As Andrews (1996) concluded, “through assorted promotional manifestations of the flight metaphor, Nike was instrumental in connecting Jordan to the American ideology of individualism” (p. 145).
Other sociologists have drawn on earth images, especially with respect to hegemonic and hypermasculine sports such as American football and WWF/E wrestling (see Kimmel, 1987; Connell, 1990; Messner & Sabo, 1994). Researchers have argued that these images in sports emphasize the size, strength, and stability of male athletes—such as “The Rock,” Hulk Hogan, Crush, Giant Gonzalez, and others in wrestling—and in so doing, the male body comes to represent power. Indeed, power itself is masculinized in terms of physical strength and domination.
Water images have, not surprisingly, been used by sociologists to critique images of swimmers and, in the case of Davis (1997), the swimsuit. Miller (2001) argued that in swimming the “languorous connotations” of water, coupled with the “lack of intersubjective violence and the practice of shaving the legs and torso” (p. 61), have been used to frame the sport as feminine and even homoerotic. In her critique of Sports Illustrated's annual “swimsuit issue,” Davis (1997) noted that the magazine issue objectifies women sexually and as such reinforces traditional conceptions of masculinity and femininity.
Finally, researchers have used fire images to examine various sporting images, ranging from athletic expressions such as “hot,” “on fire,” and “baptism by fire” to actual conflagrations ignited in cities by fans to celebrate a team's victory (Meier, 1979; Blanchard, 1995; Atkinson, 2007). Other scholars have examined how fire images are associated with particular athletes, such as hard-throwing baseball pitchers such as Nolan Ryan whose status as a “power pitcher” was highlighted by references to him as a “flame thrower” whose “heat” was the essence of his power (Trujillo, 1991, 1994).
In the cases cited above, researchers used the four essential elements to critique images of various sports and sports celebrities presented in the mass media. The goal of this study is to assess how fans use the four elements to interpret the essences of their favorite sports celebrities.
Methods
As part of a larger study, a questionnaire was administered to a sample of adolescents. This age group was selected because it tends to have a powerful identification with sports celebrities.
Sample
The sample for this study consisted of 878 adolescents in the area of Provence in southern France. Specifically, the sample included 433 middle-school students (ages 14–15) and 445 high-school students (ages 17–18).
Survey
The questionnaire was distributed by members of the research team in the classrooms of the students. The pupils were informed that all responses to the self-administered questionnaire would be anonymous and confidential and that the questionnaires were to be completed individually.
The current study focuses on responses to specific questions regarding sports celebrities in France. The first question was a simple open-ended one: “Who is your favorite sportsman/sportswoman?” Following this question, another open-ended question asked respondents to “give three words or expressions to characterize him or her.” Finally, respondents were provided a list of several sports celebrities, including Arnaud Clement (tennis), David Douillet (judo), Michael Johnson (track and field), Richard Virenque (cycling), Zinédine Zidane (soccer), and others, and were asked to rate each athlete on a five-point Likert scale from “I hate him” (1) to “I love him” (5). Respondents were also asked to associate each sports celebrity with one or more of the basic elements of earth, air, fire, and water. Each of the descriptive words or expressions offered by the subjects were then categorized according to the four elements.
The authors conducted interviews using a semistructured interview schedule to further explore the interpretations made by adolescents.
Results
The most popular sports celebrities in France
The question asking subjects to name their favorite sportsman or sportswoman generated a list of nearly 80 sports celebrities. However, of the 878 respondents, 154 (22.4%) identified soccer player Zinédine Zidane as their favorite sportsperson and 71 (10.3%) identified judo player David Douillet (Table 1). Every other athlete identified (including André Agassi, Fabien Barthez, Eric Cantona, Thierry Henry, Michael Jordan, and Anna Kournikova) was listed by <5% of the sample.
Sports Heroes
The results from the Likert scale ratings of “love–hate” also showed that both Douillet and Zidane were very much appreciated by the respondents (mean = 4.03, SD = 1.13 for David Douillet and mean = 4.09, SD = 1.25 for Zinédine Zidane), even by those who did not chose them as their favorite sportsman/sportswoman. Thus, in this sample, David Douillet and Zinédine Zidane were far and away the two most known and most popular sports celebrities in France. This study focuses on the results for these two athletes.
David Douillet is a French judo player. At 6′ 4″ (1.96 m) in height and over 280 pounds (over 130 kg) in weight, his physique is impressive. Douillet was a black belt judoka and two-time Olympic champion (1996 and 2000) and four-time world champion (1993, twice in 1995, 1997). He is also well known in the media for his humanitarian work. As Duret (2001) concluded: “Arnold Schwarzenegger or David Douillet represent for them [for adolescents of lower socio-economic status] strong contemporary men, because of their muscles, but also because of their success in life” (p. 33).
Zinédine Zidane is a French soccer player. He was born in Marseille, France, in 1972, but his parental origins are in Kabylia, Algeria, and as such, he symbolizes the successful integration of an immigrant's son in a country where North-African immigration is a sensitive theme. In terms of his sporting accomplishments, he won the “Gold Ball” and the World Cup with the French national team in 1998. Two years later, he won the European Cup with the same national team. In 2001, he was offered a contract from the “Real of Madrid” club for a record amount: almost 100 million euro. He has been used in advertisements by Adidas, Ford, Leader Price, and other companies. Zidane is also a complicated man whose temper has caused him troubles. Zidane retired from competitive soccer after France's defeat by Italy in the 2006 World Cup final, where he was ejected for his notorious headbutt on Italian defender Marco Materazzi at 10 min before the end of the final game.
Although these two French athletes were identified and rated by the respondents as the most popular, they were not perceived to have the same image. The next section examines the essential elements associated with these two athletes.
The elements associated with David Douillet and Zinédine Zidane
More than 90% of the respondents were able to associate one or more of the four elements with each of these two sportsmen. Indeed, only 8.3% of the respondents did not associate an element with David Douillet and only 9.7% of the respondents did not associate an element with Zinédine Zidane.
A majority of respondents (60.7%) associated David Douillet with the earth element, whereas Zinédine Zidane was associated with fire (34.0%) and earth (32.8%) elements (Fig. 1). The 623 words or expressions offered by respondents about these two athletes (200 words for Douillet and 423 words for Zidane) reinforced these associations.
Associations between sports celebrity and one or more of the basic elements.
In the next sections, we examine these elements associated with Douillet and Zidane. We organize our analysis in terms of four aspects of their images: (1) their origins, (2) their physical appearance, (3) their sporting actions, and (4) their personality.
Discussion
David Douillet and the earth element
Douillet's origins
As noted earlier, Bachelard argued that images of earth are associated with refuge, as in the case of homeland. Many of the respondents who chose David Douillet as their favorite sportsman associated him with his homeland of France. Words such as “French” and “representative (of France)” were used to characterize him. Adolescents seemed to express pride in this man who, for them, represents their own roots, their own origins.
This apparent pride is not surprising, given that David Douillet is seen as very patriotic in France. Unlike other sportsmen who, according to one respondent, “do not even know the national anthem,” Douillet has been pictured regularly posing with the French flag. As Douillet himself once said: “I love the flag of my country. Every athlete has this love. I have no shame to say that I am patriot, that I love my country, and that I am proud to be French.” In addition, Douillet was close to the previous French president, Jacques Chirac, and his family, has supported the Parti Républicain (the French Republican Party), and has defended national values. In short, Douillet is seen as being attached to and working for the homeland of his origins.
Although Douillet's political involvement might have weighed against him, inasmuch as Jaques Chirac was not lauded by the majority of the French population, the adolescents who expressed admiration of him were either motivated by national myths and/or are not interested in politics (see Maffesoli, 1988).
The earth element symbolizes another image of home as well, that of “Mother Earth,” from whom all life springs. Several respondents described David Douillet in terms of parental labels such as “dad,” “devoted dad,” and “attentive.” This finding is not surprising, given Douillet's statement during the 1996 Olympic Games that was reported widely by the French media. As he left the judo mat after a successful match, a reporter asked him: “Is gaining this Olympic medal the happiest day of your life?”
Douillet replied “No, the happiest day of my life was when my children were born.”
Douillet's physical appearance
When asked to characterize David Douillet, many respondents used terms such as “tall,” “strong,” “massive,” and “gigantic.” These descriptions were expected given Douillet's physical size.
According to Bachelard, descriptors such as those noted above evoke terrestrial hugeness and stability as well as strength and force. As he noted, the “big man” bears the mark of the rock and the mountain, of what is difficult to lift. The rock is a fundamental image, and its aim is to crush and introduce terror into a landscape (Bachelard, 1947, p. 191).
David Douillet is definitely perceived to be such a rock in the judo ring. His image is powerful and immoveable, and he is seen to be able to crush his adversary with his great weight. In this way he represents the Gargantua from our childhood myths, his feet planted firmly on the earth, overcoming his adversary.
Douillet's work
According to Bachelard, images of the body are shaped by the work it performs. The judoka's work is practiced in a particularly earthy place: the combat ground, a square on the floor measuring about 26 feet × 26 feet (8 m × 8 m). The two opponents stand face to face. They are barefoot and clad in a simple, sober outfit: an ample kimono (or judogi) made out of calico, thick and strong, traditionally white in color, fastened with a black belt.
The judoka's job, then, is to put his adversary off balance so he falls to the ground. In the first phase of the combat, when both competitors are standing, the one who is more stable, who does not lose his footing, who remains in contact with the earth is more likely to win. The one who loses contact with the earth, who becomes aerial, has no stability and is at the mercy of his adversary. If the fight continues on the floor, the principle is the same: to win, he must keep control of his mobility and, therefore, maintain his contact with the ground. Contact with the ground, which transmits energy, is direct. The judoka's feet are bare and energy is transmitted through the athletes' bare feet.
Many of the respondents (44.3%) used the word “fort” to describe Douillet, a word that, in French, signifies physical force as well as superiority. There is no doubt that the work of the judoka is forceful. Indeed, the Olympic icon that represents judo is the blacksmith's striking his hammer on the anvil. Just like the blacksmith, the judoka summons up the will to exert power over matter. And like metalwork, judo is a painful work that requires size, strength, and, imaginatively speaking, an iron will and iron constitution.
Douillet's personality
Respondents used a variety of words to characterize Douillet's personality, including “calm,” “natural,” “self-control,” “true,” and “wisdom.” According to Bachelard, in poetical thoughts, these terms correspond to the image of the rock on earth. As he wrote, the rock teaches us not only about physical size and strength, but also about emotional and spiritual strength as well. The rock, after all, does not only stand tall; it remains peaceful despite all blows. Bachelard (1947, p. 202) quotes Goethe as saying that “rocks whose strength elevates [his] soul and gives it solidity.” It is not accidental, then, that the philosopher's rock is, according to Bachelard, a “stone of wisdom.”
In addition, many respondents used the word “generous” to describe Douillet, probably because the French media have reported many stories about his humanitarian actions devoted to assisting families or children, like the one christened “Operation Small Charge,” which collects money to help children in hospitals. As one reporter wrote: “David Douillet is not the more popular sportsman in France without reasons. He is become an exceptional celebrity because of his repeated exploits, his kindness, his generosity.”
According to Bachelard, generosity is consistent with earth images, because the earth's fertility nourishes us; it is a “Horn of Plenty.” Thus, an individual who is associated with the earth element, Bachelard explained, draws his morality from and works to improve the earth. He has what philosophers call an “Atlas complex.” In this way, then, Douillet is seen to be working for the world and he is, like the earth, a horn of plenty.
In sum, a majority of respondents associated David Douillet to one principal element: the earth. To them, he is the rock of their native land of France who symbolizes physical size and power as well as emotional and spiritual strength.
In the case of Zinédine Zidane, however, respondents associated him with images of earth and fire. We now turn to an analysis of Zidane's image, again in terms of the following four aspects: (1) his origins, (2) his physical appearance, (3) his sporting work, and (4) his personality.
Zinédine Zidane and the earth and fire elements
Zidane's origins
Many respondents used words associated with Zidane's French origins to describe him, such as “Marseille,” “Provence,” and “French.” As in the case of Douillet, these words connote images of “homeland” and “Mother earth.” However, unlike Douillet, Zidane is from a poor area in the inner city of Marseille, and so he also is seen as someone who rose from the bottom to gain glory and renown in society. In this way, he is like the hero in ancient legends and contemporary films who comes from the soiled and squalid earth to rise above others.
Some respondents also used the words “Arabic,” “Algerian,” and “Berber” to characterize Zidane. Thus, even though respondents see Zidane as coming from the “homeland” of France, they also see him having “roots” in Algeria. As one journalist reminded readers in a story about Zidane's performance during a match at Saint-Denis:
“‘Zizou’ [Zidane's nickname], whose the presence constituted on his own an interesting sight, remained stony-faced, probably thinking of his family in Taguemount, [Algeria] in the heart of the ‘Little Kabylia,’ thinking of his cousins stayed in his father's country; and maybe thinking also of the special ambiance of the ‘Berber’ café, where local sportsmen gather together, in this little village located on the side of the ‘Babor’ mountain.” (www.lavoixdunord.fr/vdn/journal/dossier/sports/france/10075.shtml)
Zindane's physical appearance
As in the case of Douillet, many respondents used terms such as “strong,” “big,” and “muscular” to describe Zidane's physical appearance. As noted earlier, these words evoke earthly images of strength and stability.
In Zidane's case, however, respondents also used terms such as “Arabic,” “Berber,” or “African,” not merely to describe Zidane's origins but also his appearance. For example, when asked in the interviews “What is the Zidane's skin color?” most of the respondents answered that he is “Arab” or “Beur” (a word that means “Arab” according to a form of French slang named “verlan,” which consists of the inversion of word's syllables). This response is very interesting because although Zidane is a Berber, a Berber is not an Arab. If Algeria is known as an Arabic country, Berber people who live in Algeria Mountains are not derived from the Arabic peninsula: that is why it is common to see Berbers with white skin, blue or green eyes, and blond hair. Yet respondents used “Arab” as a color to describe Zidane's skin tone. Thus, because of the African ancestry of his parents, respondents perceive Zidane's skin as darker than Douillet's skin. As Bachelard (1938) wrote, the African human being is metaphorically licked by the sun's fire, resulting in black skin. Although Zidane's skin is not black, per se, his perceived darkness does connote the element of fire.
Zidane's work
Zidane's job on the field involves both earth and fire elements. As in the case of Douillet, the place of Zidane's work is an earthly one. Indeed, the soccer field is a grassy area of ground, and the stadium itself is a protected green space in an otherwise urban environment.
Zidane has the unique position of a midfielder that plays defense and offense; he is also the team leader. In terms of earth images, his work on defense suggests that he is the rock that must stop the adversary's force and the safety lock that protects the midfield space. In addition, as the team leader, Zidane is, metaphorically speaking, the demiurge whose work builds the game. His function is to “create” open spaces by stealing the ball from his opponents and passing it to his teammates. Fittingly, then, respondents described Zidane as a “creator,” “mainspring,” “catalyzer,” and “genius.”
On the other hand, when Zidane works on the offensive, his image is associated with fire elements. Some respondents used terms such as “striker” and “gunner” to describe his actions on the field. When Zidane moves from defense to offense, he is the flame that attacks, and the attack is explosive and sudden, as a “flash.” As Bachelard (1938) wrote, “fire suggests the wish to change, to rush the time” (p. 35). The rapid movement of fire is why, etymologically speaking, fire was called the “vivacious,” the “ag-ile,” “Ag-nis,” “ig-nis,” “igneous.” It is fitting, then, that some respondents described Zidane as “agile.”
Zidane's personality
Several respondents characterized Zidane in terms of his “virility” as a man. As Bachelard pointed out, early Greek philosophers believed that the element of fire was dominant in the male body and, thus, was associated with “masculine” qualities such as strength, enthusiasm, and fieriness. Fabre argued that “courage and action comes from fire and air, which are active elements, that is why we call them ‘male elements'; whereas we call others elements, that is, water and earth, passive and female” (Bachelard, 1938, p. 375).
Respondents also used terms such as “kind,” “nice,” “lovable,” and “sociable” to characterize his personality. Such terms are consistent with the imagery of the fire element as well, because as Bachelard noted, fire symbolizes sharing and communion, as in the need to share warmth. Indeed, rituals around the fire are usually done in a group. Bachelard (1938) wrote: “Fire is not limited to cook, it makes the biscuit crusty. It glazes the pancake. It materializes human celebrations” (p. 35). The fire element associated with Zidane, thus, symbolizes the joy of a striker who exalts his team.
In summary, respondents interpreted the images of David Douillet and Zinédine Zidane in similar and disparate ways. Douillet's image was primarily seen through the element of earth. He is a man of his French homeland, a gigantic “rock” of a man who embodied stability, a judoka whose work in the ring was grounded, and a generous personality. Zidane's image, on the other hand, was seen through the elements of earth and fire. He is a home-grown man of Marseilles, a darkened man of Arabic ancestry, a protector of his home team's space on the soccer field, a “flame” who can strike at any time, and a viral yet kind personality.
Concluding Remarks
One of the first authors to seriously investigate the question of the imagination was the Scottish ethnologist Sir James George Frazer. In The Golden Bough (1922) he shows that for the human imagination, often and despite rational good sense, the rule is: an object is what it looks like (e.g., voodoo dolls: the doll I create looks like someone I hate; in torturing this doll I torture he whom I hate). Many behaviors found by the author in “primitive” tribes are set in motion by symbolic and deforming imagination functioning through not logical but analogical rules. The goal of the present article was to show that it exists the same phenomenon in the reception of sports images by spectators, in contemporary western society, especially in France.
The four essential elements of earth, fire, air, and water have been used by various scholars throughout human history to understand the body, mind, and spirit. We believe that these elements remain viable tools for the study of human images, especially the images of mediated performers such as professional athletes.
These elements serve as archetypes that form broader and, in some ways, universal categories for interpreting the social world. Like the archetypes used by Campbell (1949) to describe the mythic quests of heroes and by Jung (1964) to describe patterns of human personalities, the elements provide a deeper structure for understanding images of human favorite, especially mediated images of sports and other celebrities.
The four elements also tap into favorite and unconscious aspects of the human imagination. As Bachelard (1942) wrote, the elements can be used “to find, behind the explicit images, the hidden implicit images, to go to the actual root of imaginative force” (p. 8). Thus, they may be helpful in discovering and unveiling the “hidden” meanings of sports celebrities for fans.
Even though the elements may tap into unconscious aspects, our study showed that fans are able to use the elements to make sense of the images of their favorite athletes. As indicated earlier, more than 90% of the respondents in our study were able to associate one or more of the elements to the two sports celebrities investigated here. We encourage other researchers to use the four elements to examine how fans interpret the images of other athletes and celebrities.
Footnotes
Author Disclosure Statement
No competing financial interests exist.