Abstract
Abstract
Environmental justice has been defined as equitable distribution of environmental burdens and benefits, including access to sufficient and clean water. While many major cities are represented as providing 100% access to improved water sources, these statistics better reflect access for buildings rather than for people. The ramifications of our urban water infrastructure are grave for inhabitants who experience homelessness, especially given the complex ways that water access is privatized, including restrooms for customers only and public restrooms that require a fee. The situation grows more dire in the face of global environmental change, which has implications for domestic homelessness, migration, and health vulnerabilities. This research reflects empirical investigation of changes in the urban water systems of Athens, Greece; Istanbul, Turkey; and Los Angeles, United States; between 2014 and 2017. Findings conclude that as a basic needs approach to urban environmental justice, public water fountains should be reintroduced to urban spaces and sited to ensure access to populations experiencing homelessness.
Introduction
Achieving environmental justice requires us to equitably distribute environmental burdens and benefits. 1 Environmental benefits at a minimum should include clean air and safe water in the places in which we carry out our lives. 2 Today, more than half of the global population is carrying out life in urban spaces, a number that is only projected to increase in the coming decades. 3
The carrying capacity of cities has evolved to hold a majority of Earth's population due, in large part, to modern urban water systems; designed to deliver reliable and safe drinking water to large populations, these systems are a fundamental component of global urbanization. Clean water is one of the great promises of the modernist city and among its greatest feats is the centralized water system delivering supply directly into individual homes and buildings, which replaced historic systems of standpipes, fountains, and wells from which urban inhabitants collected and hauled water. 4 This massive transformation resulted in cities around the world reporting 100% access to improved water sources, according to the World Health Organization and the World Bank. 5 The contradiction, however, is that these statistics better reflect access for buildings rather than for people. This is a serious environmental justice concern as many urban inhabitants are not reliably connected to a building. Due to both domestic and international drivers, from labor markets to environmental issues and political violence, about 2% of the world's population is currently homeless, while more than 20% lack adequate housing or a permanent residence that provides roots, security, identity, and emotional well-being. 6
Global environmental change is complicit in both rates of homelessness and the vulnerability of those represented by the figures. The World Health Organization defines global environmental change as:
“Large-scale and global environmental hazards to human health [that] include climate change, stratospheric ozone depletion, changes in ecosystems due to loss of biodiversity, changes in hydrological systems and the supplies of freshwater, land degradation, urbanization, and stresses on food-producing systems.” 7
Associated conditions reflect the most severe presence of environmental burdens and lack of benefits. Among these concerns are health risks connected to increased temperatures and aridity, which are exacerbated by lack of water access. Cities should plan for these conditions, ensuring water supply to the most vulnerable populations as a basic human right. 8 While this approach does nothing to address the causes of urban poverty, it could serve to sustain life in the face of severe global challenges.
The following discussion provides an analysis of the relationship between global environmental change, homelessness, and migration, including linkages with human health. Access is then problematized in modern urban water systems, followed by an investigation into the history and current state of public water. The article concludes with recommendations to inform siting of public fountains using an environmental justice lens, thereby ensuring that access is increased for urban inhabitants experiencing homelessness.
Research Design
In 2014, a multicity qualitative examination was undertaken to map transition in specific water systems. The methodology included case studies in three specific cities, intended to both stand alone and offer comparative insights. 9 This multicity case study design allows for tracing or for linkages across space and time to illuminate relationships and processes that influence actors and events at macro-, meso-, and microlevels. 10 Analysis was conducted through a critical theoretical framework to critique existing relationships and formations within each urban context and to imagine and recommend more socially just and sustainable forms. 11
Fieldwork was conducted in all three cities with varying levels of complementary analysis, including participant observation, interviews with primary actors, and text analysis of primary and secondary sources. 12
Study location
This study initially included three cities with Mediterranean or semiarid climate types 13 as this climate region is particularly vulnerable to global environmental change, including rising temperatures, shifting precipitation patterns, urbanization, and species loss, 14 which can all have severe impacts on water systems. Athens, Greece; Istanbul, Turkey; and Los Angeles, United States; were selected based on their role as primary cities defined as the largest urban agglomeration in their respective regions. 15 These particular cities were also selected based on their cosmopolitan character and location between regions, both geographically and culturally, with Athens situated at the frontier of Eastern and Western Europe, Los Angeles as a minority majority city in the United States located near the Mexican border, and Istanbul straddling the European and Asian continents geographically as well as Europe and the Middle East culturally. These factors contribute to a rich political ecology for systems analysis.
Sampling
Forty individual interviews were conducted with water experts, managers, and activists, as well as inhabitants experiencing homelessness. Between 2014 and 2015, 20 of these interviews were conducted in Los Angeles with water experts, managers, and activists; in 2017, as part of an associated pilot study, six interviews were conducted in the area with people experiencing homelessness. In addition, in 2017, interviews were conducted in Greece with 14 water experts, managers, and activists. Long-form semistructured interviews averaged 2 hours. Purposive and snowball sampling methodologies were both utilized to identify research participants. The 2016 coup in Turkey altered the political climate of the country, complicating the ability to conduct official interviews. However, three fieldwork trips had been completed in Turkey in the previous 3 years, during which many informal interviews were conducted along with observation of water infrastructure, especially the continued presence of fountains, and Istanbul's growing migrant and homeless population.
Method of analysis
Data were originally analyzed with the purpose of mapping transition within each urban water system. 16 This article reports secondary analysis, which sought to articulate the context in which transition is occurring, understanding context as social interactions, political processes, and economic developments across scales and across time. 17 Understanding the relationships and processes impacting each system serves to identify the most vulnerable to assert ways in which the system can transition to support those with the least environmental, social, and political benefits. 18
Ethical Considerations
The author submitted a proposal for this research to the Institutional Review Board (IRB) at the University of California, Los Angeles. Interviews were considered as minimal risk and the study was approved by the IRB.
Findings
Findings elucidate strategies for coping with water stress and transitioning toward more sustainable systems. 19 However, the most disturbing observation during fieldwork, and the focus of this article, was the substantial increase in the number of people experiencing homelessness in all three cities between 2014 and 2017, evidenced by people sleeping on sidewalks and streets. The drivers of homelessness in each city vary drastically, highlighting its structural nature linked to income inequality and poverty, global environmental change, political turmoil, and armed conflict. In Athens, homelessness is largely driven by the economic crisis ongoing since 2007. 20 Interview respondents noted that before the economic crash, it was extremely rare that someone would not have a place to live as family networks are strong in Greece. The situation now has grown dire. As one interviewee remarked: “Homeless people are new to Athens. We used to have two homeless people in the Athens metropolitan area—now there are so many.” Los Angeles has the opposite problem, in which regional prosperity and high property values are pricing low-income residents out of the housing market and into homelessness. 21 Across the state, there are more than 130,000 homeless people 22 or, as some members of that community prefer, roofless people. 23 Tent cities have sprung up around the Southern California region, along highways and side streets alike.
The situation in Istanbul is deeply intertwined with geopolitics and especially the ongoing war in Syria. There are more than 2.7 million Syrian refugees in Turkey, 24 and while numbers are inexact, many refugees reside for some time in Istanbul. While conducting fieldwork in the city (2014–2016), it was common to see families panhandling at busy tourist sites and huddled together, asleep in side streets. Migrants from other areas flee political, economic, and environmental disasters, including people experiencing homelessness as part of their migration from Georgia, Russia, Iraq, Ghana, and Afghanistan, among other countries. 25 As a large metropolis, Istanbul is also a primary destination for internal migration, as evidenced by the frequency of informal settlements categorized as one of the city's social problems. 26 Domestic homelessness is driven by the more common characteristics of natural disaster, lack of affordable housing, domestic violence, job loss, drug addiction, and mental illness. 27 What urban inhabitants experiencing homelessness have in common across these three cities is the basic need for water in a cityscape warmed by rising temperatures and increased aridity. In addition, their numbers will most likely increase as the trend in homelessness might be a new norm, driven by growing inequality and migration associated with both global environmental change and political instability. 28
This analysis is further informed by an observed lack of public water in urban spaces. This observation was made during comparative fieldwork in the three cities, which highlighted the continued presence of historic fountains in Istanbul 29 relative to a dearth of fountains in Athens and Los Angeles. Anecdotal observations in a fourth city, Greensboro, North Carolina, in 2018 further illustrate how problematic water access can be, as discussed in the section on environmental justice. Taken together, trends in migration and homelessness will unfold in cities unequipped with public water; the implications for environmental justice should be considered in resource planning, as outlined in the following discussion.
Discussion
Alongside urbanization, the prevalence of homelessness is increasing worldwide. 30 Along with inadequate housing stock, economic, and policy conditions, as well as demographic trends, 31 global environmental change is complicit in the dynamics driving homelessness.
Changes in natural systems and increased urbanization are intimately linked to economic and political factors associated with homelessness. Ecosystem collapse and loss of livelihood, for example, can devastate local economies. More severe weather events result in the annihilation of both economies and housing. 32 Climate change and higher temperatures have even been recently linked to negative mental health outcomes, which can be associated factors in homelessness. 33
Migration is also associated with global environmental change, including endogenous movement within national borders as well as exogenous flows, or global migration between nation states. 34 Migration is closely associated with extreme weather events and changes in mean temperatures and sea levels. 35 Global environmental change is further connected to migration resulting from armed conflicts, as evidenced in the mass migration compelled by war in Syria, of which drought was a factor. 36 Whether within or between national borders, migration and periods of homelessness are often linked. 37 Cities are therefore common destination points for exogenous and endogenous migration, and home to the largest percentage of the global homeless population, given access to employment and housing opportunities as well as services found in the metropolis. 38
Modern urban water infrastructure powers many of the world's cities, characterized by technology, central control, and large capital investments. 39 However, the modernist movement in urban planning is critiqued for its blind faith in progress and technology, which ignores social and environmental harms, 40 a failing made manifest in urban water systems. Designed to provide clean, reliable potable water, these systems more precisely service buildings rather than people. 41 While development data reflect 100% access to improved water sources in most cities of the global North, due in large part to modernist infrastructure, it is buildings not people who are the recipients of these services. 42
This is especially problematic for those experiencing homelessness and who are therefore not reliably connected to a building structure. While access to water for hydration and hygiene is required to uphold basic human life and dignity, 43 health concerns are further created and exacerbated by a lack of water access, including life-threatening kidney disease. 44 The economic costs of these health impacts are staggering. In 2004, almost $5.5 billion of hospital charges in the United States resulted from dehydration admissions alone. 45 Access to water becomes more critical in the face of global environmental change, with associated increases in temperatures and aridity that will require more water intake for basic hydration and health. 46
Public water
Contrary to global spikes in temperature, urbanization, and homelessness, public water is on the decline. In the form of communal fountains and wells, public water was a defining characteristic of village and urban life. 47 Phurisamban and Gleick echo Pausania, the second century Greek writer, in saying, “A place is never rightfully a ‘city’ without water fountains.” 48 While fountains historically denoted larger features used to fill vessels, the industrial revolution provided technology for the single-user drinking fountain, which proliferated in parks and public spaces during the twentieth century. 49 However, both communal and single-user fountains have become scarce in many of today's cities. Scholars suggest that the modern single-user fountain has been largely replaced by bottled water, 50 while historic communal fountains and wells were supplanted by the modern urban water system itself, which precluded the need for communal water access by piping resources directly into individual buildings. 51
This development is especially problematic for those experiencing homelessness as the absence of water in the form of fountains and wells limits water supply to buildings. Inhabitants experiencing homelessness, however, are by definition without consistent access to a personal building, forcing reliance on public buildings and those owned by others. Restrooms could then stand as the last reliable source of water for those moving through an urban space. However, the increasing privatization of water is easily observed in public restrooms associated with access fees and signs that assert restrooms for customers only.
Resurgence of public water
There is, however, a resurgence of the drinking water fountain underway. In an effort to cut down on plastic water bottle use, London's Mayor, Sadiq Khan, is funding the installation of new fountains across the city. 52 With one spigot for drinking and another that releases a larger stream of water for refilling bottles, these new fountains are a blend of large communal fountains from which people filled vessels and single-user fountains. 53 Paris has more than 1000 public fountains, but it is adding sparkling water fountains in an effort to reduce plastic bottle use and improve the urban environment. 54 There are similar efforts underway in cities across the United States, which are also concerned with public health, namely decreasing the consumption of sugary drinks that lead to diabetes and other adverse health impacts. 55 Nancy Stoner, the former Acting Assistant Administrator for the Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA's) Office of Water, outlined the benefits and costs of public water:
“Reinvigorating public water fountains provides a variety of benefits. They provide a service to residents and tourists who need a drink of clean water. They provide an alternative to sodas and other high-sugar drinks for children, both in schools and around town. When old, broken-down drinking fountains are restored it preserves historic relics of our cities. Water fountains can also save money… On average, the cost to treat, filter and deliver tap water is 0.2 cents per gallon—roughly 750–2700 times less expensive than bottled water. In spite of this cost difference, Americans drink around 30 gallons of bottled water per person per year. And with one estimate that 1500 bottles of water are consumed in the United States every second, this is a huge amount going into the recycling and waste stream. Since cities bear the cost of collecting, transporting, recycling, and land-filling plastic bottles, reducing this stream could save city resources. Many cities are taking action. Minneapolis, New York City, San Francisco, and Washington, D.C., are encouraging residents to drink tap water, in part by reinvigorating public water fountains. EPA is also working with mayors across the country through the U.S. Conference of Mayors to promote the value of public water fountains.” 56
Fountains for environmental justice
The installation of fountains, however, does not necessarily further environmental justice. Whether producing still or sparkling water, fountains do little to more equitably distribute environmental benefits when sited in high-income areas and those that are already well serviced by public facilities. It is not just bringing fountains back into cities—which is important—but also siting them to serve those who most need access to public water. I argue that the population most in need of access comprises those experiencing homelessness.
Los Angeles, CA, for instance, has one of the highest rates of homelessness in the United States 57 and is also part of the Mediterranean climate zone, which is especially vulnerable to increased temperatures and aridity associated with global environmental change. 58 During summer 2016, temperatures spiked so high that officials installed temporary fountains in the Skid Row area of downtown Los Angeles, where many homeless residents live. The fountains, however, were temporary, and as activist General Jeff Page stated: “We need these YEAR-ROUND because there is a tremendous amount of people who are severely dehydrated and undernourished in Skid Row.” 59 One respondent living under a tent in Southern California attested in a 2017 interview with the author that he had been hospitalized for dehydration three times during the past summer. This medical trauma and its associated costs could be avoided with the permanent installation of fountains in areas with high concentrations of inhabitants who lack permanent housing.
Currently, public parks might be among the most reliable places to find water. However, there are three distinct challenges with the reliability of these spaces. First, the prevalence of public parks, initially designed in the United States to offer refuge to the disenfranchised, has diminished in many cities as such spaces are increasingly privatized. 60 Second, the lack of maintenance and upkeep renders fountains unusable. 61 Third, most parks close during nighttime hours, meaning that there is risk of citation or arrest to access water during those hours. 62 Even during operating hours, design can make access challenging. For instance, Center City Park and LeBauer Park in Downtown Greensboro, North Carolina, are beloved community spaces in which diverse ages and cultures of the refugee resettlement city gather, play, and relax. On a more careful look, however, one will find that water fountains are relegated to two specific places within the 5-acre green space, the dog park and the children's park, both spaces that persons without dogs or children could feel conspicuous and uncomfortable entering. These issues could be partially remedied by maintaining existing fountains and critically siting new units at the periphery of park spaces where they can be readily accessed at any time.
Another targeted strategy for ensuring water access to the most vulnerable is to install fountains at bus stops. Public transportation is often the means of travel for those experiencing homelessness. However, leaving an encampment to receive services or find food also leaves one's belongings vulnerable to confiscation by police or theft. 63 The combined weight of carrying water and precious belongings is odious. Spacing water fountains out between city bus stops could alleviate some of this burden. This presence of public water would also serve well those city inhabitants who have a permanent shelter and rely on public transportation, a population that in cities such as Los Angeles is the focus of environmental justice concerns. 64 In fact, City Lab reported that 92% of bus riders in Los Angeles are people of color with an annual median household income of $12,000. 65 Siting public fountains at bus stops would therefore serve not only those experiencing homelessness but also those with more permanent housing who demographically receive the least environmental benefits in society.
Conclusions
Cities can work to build environmental justice by ensuring water access to all inhabitants, especially those without reliable connection to a building. As outlined in this discussion, global environmental change is not only driving domestic homelessness and migration that is often associated with periods of homelessness but also climate conditions that render water access increasingly critical to prevent dehydration and related medical conditions. It is therefore imperative that cities provide public water access as the most basic assurance of environmental justice.
While fountains are seeing a resurgence in some cities, it is necessary to consider whether or not their locations are serving those most vulnerable and in need of public water access. Increasing the prevalence of fountains in areas already served by wealth and public facilities further concentrates environmental benefits. To advance environmental justice, fountains should be sited in areas in which those experiencing homelessness carry out their lives. This article briefly outlines three specific locations for public water fountains that would increase access for urban inhabitants experiencing homelessness, including areas where this community lives, the periphery of public parks, and along public bus routes. Further research is needed to determine best practices for siting fountains in specific locales, research based on quantitative data such as demographic statistics as well as local interviews with people experiencing homelessness. The general approach to public water outlined here will become more critical as global environmental change drives increases in both temperatures and migration, reflected in the number of people experiencing homelessness and their health vulnerabilities in hot and arid climates. While public water is a palliative response that does not impact the fight against urban poverty, it is a crucial step in meeting one of the most basic human needs in the middle of the struggle for justice, equity, and human rights.
Footnotes
Acknowledgments
The author is grateful to all of the interviewees and facilitators who participated in these studies. Special acknowledgments to those whose experience of homelessness directly informed this work. It is the author's intention that both her work and unearned privilege be used for the creation of more just systems—thanking all for the contribution of their guidance, knowledge, and experience in these efforts.
Author Disclosure Statement
No competing financial interests exist.
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