Abstract
Introduction
A review of operating biorefineries displays a range of technology solutions undergoing commercial development—beyond just advanced biofuels—to produce commodity and specialty renewable chemicals. Industrial biotechnology companies are pursuing renewable chemicals and biobased materials because they can be commercialized at production manufacturing scale and at low volumes, as well as promise environmental benefits, stable costs and novel properties in comparison to fossil fuel-derived chemicals. Competition to produce platform renewable chemicals provides manufacturers assurance of a steadily available, high-quality supply of renewable chemicals for consumer product applications.
Analysts predict a rapid expansion of renewable chemical production in the near future based on planned capacity expansion or new construction. McKinsey & Co. estimates that there were $252 billion (€204 billion) in sales of biobased products in 2012, with biofuels and plant extracts comprising more than half. Sales of renewable chemicals represented 9% of the $2,820 billion (€2,281 billion) in worldwide chemical sales in 2012. By 2020, McKinsey expects biobased products to make up 11% of the $3,401 billion (€3,130 billion) global chemical market. Sales of biobased products would reach $375—$441 billion (€345–€406 billion) by 2020, with a compound annual growth rate of 8% over the preceding decade. Worldwide sales of chemicals are expected to grow at 4% annually, overall. While biofuels and plant extracts continue to comprise half of the projected sales of biobased products in 2020, McKinsey expects the highest growth rates in sales of new biopolymers and renewable chemicals, biocatalysts for industrial processes and biologic medicines, as well as biofuels.
Supportive policies will help grow the 21st century biobased economy. The Renewable Fuel Standard (RFS), for instance, not only helped stimulate innovation in biofuels, but also opened discussions and policy development in renewable chemicals and biobased products. The 2014 Farm Bill (The Agriculture Act of 2014) extended loan guarantee eligibility to renewable chemicals and biobased products producers, through Section 9003, the Biorefinery, Renewable Chemical, and Biobased Manufacturing Assistance Program.
Other policy drivers include draft legislation, introduced in both federal chambers, creating tax incentives for production of or investment in qualifying renewable chemicals. Spurred by the federal legislation, Iowa and Minnesota announced enactment of state-level production tax credits for renewable chemicals that will speed capital investment availability and commercialization. Additionally, draft legislation introduced in the 114th Congress—the Master Limited Partnerships Parity Act (MLP)—proposes to extend tax benefits currently available only to the oil and gas industry to renewable chemicals and biofuels producers. If enacted, the legislation will provide renewable chemical producers access to low-cost capital and attract investors; and it will lower two corporate stock taxes to one.
Enactment of the Frank R. Lautenberg Chemical Safety for the 21st Century Act, updating and revising the Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA), has favorable provisions for Class 2 renewable chemical manufacturers who use renewable feedstocks. The new law could minimize costly pre-commercial reviews, if the renewable chemical has already been produced from fossil fuel feedstocks.
Background
The Economist magazine's Technology Quarterly edition for December 2015 heralded a “golden age” of material science, highlighting recent developments in inorganic chemistry. The magazine utilized the “materials genome” as a metaphor for the pace of pre-commercial innovation in the field. The industrial biotechnology sector should welcome the analogy, especially as its list of commercial successes grows. The industrial biotech sector has reached a stage where first-of-a-kind biorefineries are paving the way for rapid commercialization of new applications.
The National Science and Technology Council's Subcommittee on Advanced Manufacturing, in an April 2016 report titled “Advanced Manufacturing: A Snapshot of Priority Technology Areas Across the Federal Government,” identifies engineering biology and advanced bioproducts manufacturing as technology areas of emerging priority. The report estimates the size of the U.S. biobased economy at roughly $350 billion annually, citing a National Research Council roadmap to accelerate advanced chemical manufacturing through industrial biotechnology.
To document the progress and illustrate the growing potential for biobased production of renewable chemicals, the Biotechnology Innovation Organization's (BIO) Industrial and Environmental Section has compiled a new body of data on established biorefineries. The data includes descriptions of the technologies along with common applications and measures of the market potential. And since the renewable chemical sector seeks a level playing field in government support and regulatory policies, the data includes the demographic and economic impact of each biorefinery.
Biobased production holds many potential benefits for consumers, including cleaner, more efficient manufacturing processes that incorporate renewable ingredients in everyday products found in the home. Delivering these benefits requires continued growth of the sector to ensure that product manufacturers have a reliable, sustainable, and scalable supply of renewable chemicals.
Renewable Chemical Processes at Demonstration and Pilot Scale
Coca-Cola (Atlanta), H.J. Heinz (Pittsburgh, PA), Nike Inc. (Washington County, OR), Ford Motors (Dearborn, MI), and Procter & Gamble (Cincinnati, OH) are cooperatively working to accelerate the development of 100% renewable polyethylene terephthalate (PET), a common plastic used in packaging materials such as bottles, footwear, apparels and automobile fabrics. Coca-Cola currently markets PlantBottle with renewable ethylene glycol, which makes up as much as 30% of the plastic bottle. Coca-Cola Company has partnered with Virent (Madison, WI), Gevo (Englewood, CO) and Avantium (Amsterdam) and, similarly, Suntory Holdings (Osaka) has partnered with Anellotech (Pearl River, NY) to develop renewable para-xylene to replace petroleum terephthalic acid. These strategic partnerships have demonstrated the feasibility of a 100% renewable PET bottle.
A potential alternative to PET is polyethylene furanoate (PEF). Avantium has commercialized 100% biobased PEF resin, which is made from the company's patented biobased 2,5 furandicarboxylic acid (FDCA) combined with plant-based monoethylene glycol (MEG). Avantium is currently producing FDCA at a 40 metric ton per year pilot plant in Geleen, Netherlands. Avantium plans to start commercial production of FDCA and PEF at a 50,000 ton per year plant in 2017 and announced its intention to establish a joint venture with BASF in the production and marketing of FDCA.
A few companies have focused efforts on producing C5 and C6 sugars as a feedstock for other companies to produce biofuels and renewable chemicals. Renmatix (King of Prussia, PA) is operating a demonstration-scale Feedstock Processing Facility in Rome, NY, to supply its Integrated Plantrose Complex, based in Atlanta, where it converts the processed woody biomass to cellulosic sugars. Sweetwater Energy (Rochester, NY) is securing financing to build a biorefinery at Mountain Iron, MN, which will convert 51,000 tons of timber to sugars and lignin. Sweetwater has also leased space at Eastman Business Park in Rochester, NY, to produce alcohols from cellulosic sugars. Similarly, American Process (Atlanta) has developed GreenPower+ process technology, which produces low–cost, mixed cellulosic sugars from biomass.
Several companies are currently piloting production of adipic acid, which is a precursor to nylon and can be used in coatings and detergents. Rennovia (Menlo Park, CA) is currently operating a pilot project at the Johnson Matthey Process Technologies R&D Center in Stockton, England, converting biobased glucaric acid to adipic acid. Verdezyne (Carlsbad, CA) is operating a pilot production facility in Carlsbad. And, BioAmber (Montreal) has formed a partnership with Celexion (Bedford, MA) to produce adipic acid from succinic acid. Genomatica of Carlsbad, California, began efforts in 2014 to commercialize biobased production of adipic acid and other nylon intermediates.
At least one company has commercialized production of polyhydroxyalkanoate (PHA), a polymer that can be blended into various plastic applications. Metabolix's (Woburn, MA) current range of Mirel PHA copolymers are produced by fermentation, using specially engineered microorganisms that bioaccumulate the inert polymer. The PHA is co-polymerized with PVC to make a stronger and more flexible plastic. Metabolix uses contract manufacturing to produce Mirel; the company's partners are currently ramping up pilot production to run at nameplate capacity for 2016. However, Metabolix is exiting the bioplastics market to focus on crop enhancement technology.
Two companies, Cargill (Minnetonka, MN) and Novozymes (Bagsværd, Denmark), have partnered since 2008 to demonstrate biobased production of 3-hydroxypropionic acid (3-HPA), which is a precursor to acrylic acid. Acrylic acid is polymerized and used as an absorbent in diapers and hygiene products as well as in coatings, adhesives, carpets, and fabrics. The traditional petrochemical process for 3-HPA synthesis is achieved through the oxidation of propylene, a product of crude oil refining. Under the partnership, Cargill is operating a pilot scale production plant fermenting 3-HPA and converting it to acrylic acid. Cargill acquired Colorado based OPX Biotechnologies (Boulder, CO) and its proprietary fermentation-based process for 3-HPA.
Renewable Chemical Commercialization Successes
One of the earliest renewable chemicals to be successfully commercialized is 1,3-propanediol (1,3-PDO), a chemical building block for nylon and emollients used in cosmetics, coolant and fibers for the production of high-end carpets. DuPont Tate & Lyle (Loudon, TN) has operated a 63,500 metric ton per year biorefinery in Loudon since late 2006. The company markets the diol for industrial uses as Susterra propanediol.
One biobased process has been commercialized and another process is being scaled up to produce propylene glycol (1,2-propanediol), which can be used as a building block for saturated and unsaturated polyesters, a humectant or a food preservative. ADM (Chicago) began production of propylene glycol in March 2011 at a 100,000 metric ton per year facility in Decatur, IL, that uses glycerin as a feedstock in a catalytic process. More recently, Metabolic Explorer (Saint-Beauzire, France) and UPM (Helsinki, Finland) have formed a joint venture to demonstrate monopropylene glycol via fermentation of sugar at a facility in Clermont-Ferrand, France.
Another of the earliest renewable chemicals to be commercialized is polylactic acid (PLA), which was truly a tipping point for renewable chemicals. PLA is commonly used in food wrap and utensils and can be made into textile fibers. Since 2003 NatureWorks (Minnetonka, MN) has produced PLA at a facility in Blair, NE, with nameplate capacity of 300 million pounds (140,000 metric tons). NatureWorks markets the product as Ingeo biopolymer. Corbion (Gorinchem, Netherlands) more recently announced that it will build a biobased PLA plant with an annual capacity of 75 kilotons and expand by 25 kilotons per year its existing lactide plant in Rayong Province, Thailand.
Several companies have commercialized biobased routes to succinic acid, a building block chemical that replaces petroleum-based maleic anhydride in polyesters, alkyd resins, polyurethanes, plasticizers and solvents. Companies that are currently producing succinic acid include Myriant (Quincy MA), which is operating a 13,600 metric ton per year facility in Lake Providence, LA. BioAmber piloted its biobased process for succinic acid at a 3,000 metric ton facility in Pomacle, France, and is now producing 30,000 metric tons per year in Sarnia, Ontario, Canada. Reverdia (Geleen, Netherlands), a joint venture between DSM (Herleen, Netherlands) and Roquette (Lestrem, France), has built a 10,000 metric ton per year facility in Cassano Spinola, Italy. And Succinity (Dusseldorf, Germany), a joint venture between BASF (Ludwigshafen, Germany) and Corbion is due to start up a 25,000 metric ton per year facility in Barcelona, Spain.
One company has commercialized a biobased route to 1,4-butanediol (BDO), which is a building block in the production of tetrahydrofuran (THF), which is an intermediate for spandex and other performance polymers, and polybutylene terephthalate (PBT) resins, which are used for engineering plastics. BASF has licensed direct fermentation technology developed by Genomatica and secured rights to commercially produce up to 75,000 metric tons per year of renewable 1,4-BDO. To date, BASF reports producing volumes for its downstream customers to test and at a purity comparable to petrochemical-based 1,4-BDO for use in commercial applications. BASF is also producing and offering polytetrahydrofuran (PolyTHF) made from renewable 1,4-BDO.
Multiple competitors are also commercializing biobased routes to iso-butanol and n-butanol. Iso-butanol can be used as an oxygenate and octane-enhancing fuel additive while n-butanol is used as a solvent and intermediate in paints, coatings, printing inks, adhesives, sealants, textiles and plastics. In addition, iso-butanol can be cyclized to para-xylene, the precursor to terephthalic acid; Gevo is commercializing a process based on this chemistry. Green Biologics (Abingdon, UK), which focuses on n-butanol for chemical markets, is currently refitting a 21 million gallon ethanol plant in Little Falls, MN, with plans to begin commercial production of n-butanol and acetone during 2016. Butamax (Wilmington, DE) has completed phase 1 of its retrofit of a 50 million gallon ethanol plant in Lamberton, MN, and projects completion of phase 2 for production of iso-butanol in 2016. The company in early 2016 petitioned the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to approve its production and feedstock technology for iso-butanol as an advanced renewable fuel. Gevo retrofitted an ethanol biorefinery in Luverne, MN, and is targeting production of up to 1 million gallons of iso-butanol and 17 million gallons of ethanol in 2016. The facility is registered with EPA as Agri-Energy LLC to produce renewable fuels. Intrexon, located in the San Francisco Bay Area, began operation of a pilot plant to produce iso-butanol in early 2016.
Multiple companies have researched and developed biobased production routes for isoprene, which when polymerized is used in synthetic rubber applications for footwear, mechanical instruments, medical appliances, sporting goods, and most extensively as polyisoprene in rubber tires. But only one company is currently producing commercial quantities. Using its bacterial fermentation platform, GlycosBio (Houston) has built its first commercial facility in southern Malaysia to supply the Southeast Asian region with up to 40,000 tons of bioisoprene annually. DuPont Industrial Biosciences and Goodyear (Akron, OH) developed a fermentation process for gas-phase capture of isoprene, and have demonstrated a prototype tire using the bioisoprene monomer. Ajinomoto (Tokyo) has already successfully manufactured bioisoprene at a laboratory scale using a fermentation process, and Bridgestone (Nashville, TN) has successfully produced polyisoprene rubber using the material. Michelin (Clermont-Ferrand, France) is also working with Amyris Biotechnologies (Emeryville, CA) to develop liquid-phase bio-isoprene using farnesene—a 15-carbon isoprenoid—as a building block. Amyris has begun commercialization of this new, renewable isoprene. Zeon (Tokyo), Yokohama Rubber (Tokyo), and RIKEN (Wakō, Japan), Japan's national R&D agency, expect to commercialize a process for synthesizing isoprene from biomass in 2020. Aemetis (Cupertino, CA) now owns Zymetis' (College Park, MD) proprietary aerobic marine organisms (Saccharophagus degradans 2–40) that will enable the company to produce bio-isoprene and other renewable chemicals.
One company, Itaconix Corporation (Dover, NH), has commercialized fermentation technology, using Aspergillus, to produce itaconic acid, a building block for adhesives and sealants, finishing agents, paint and coating additives, detergents and cleaners, absorbents and dispersants. Itaconic acid can replace banned chemical phosphates in detergents. Itaconix operates a large-scale production facility in Stratham, NH, marketing a growing line of itaconic acid applications and polyitaconic acid. Itaconix recently announced its acquisition through merger by U.K. based Revolymer plc (Flintshire), a specialty chemical company.
Another company has commercialized a biobased process for aliphatic diacids, a building block for polyurethanes and polyamides. Elevance Renewable Sciences (Woodbridge, IL) is producing Inherent C18 diacid, also known as octadecanedioic diacid (ODDA) at a biorefinery in Gresik, Indonesia, using the company's proprietary olefin metathesis technology.
And at least one company is producing commercial quantities of levulinic acid, a renewable specialty chemical building block for coatings, flavors/fragrances, polymers, detergents. Traditional petrochemical process of producing levulinic acid is from maleic anhydride; this process is expensive, limiting its use to low-volume applications such as fragrances and food additives. At larger, lower-cost production volumes, levulinic acid can replace bisphenol A (BPA) as a plasticizer. GFBiochemicals (Milan, Italy) is currently expanding levulinic acid production capacity, from 2,000 to 8,000 metric tons by 2017, at a facility in Caserta, Italy.
Market Potential for Renewable Chemicals
A number of recent studies provide estimates of the current value of renewable chemical production, which overall represent a small percentage of the worldwide chemical market. Production is expected to grow most rapidly in Asia in response to the region's demand for products, supply of biomass raw material and favorable policies. Future value is dependent on the price of competing fossil-based chemicals, the price of oil, and a somewhat unpredictable policy environment.
Robert Carlson, writing in Nature Biotechnology in 2016, estimates that the U.S. industrial biotechnology industry revenues reached $105 billion at an annual growth rate of 12%, and renewable chemicals contributed $66 billion.
A report by the U.S.-based Biomass Research and Development Board estimates that the U.S. share of the biobased economy is approximately $50 billion (€46.9 billion). More than a quarter million U.S. workers are employed in the industry.
The nova-Institute of Hürth, Germany more recently examined the biobased polymer segment of the industry, which represented about $12.8 billion (€10 billion) or 5% of biobased product sales in 2013. Production capacity for biobased polymers is growing at a 20% compound annual growth rate, with 3.5 million metric tons produced in 2011 and 5.1 million metric tons in 2013. The nova-Institute projects production capacity to reach 17 million metric tons by 2020. Biobased polymers currently represent a 2% share of the overall 256 million metric ton market for polymers (up from 1.5% of the 235 million metric ton market in 2011). By 2020, the 17 million metric tons of biobased polymers are expected to represent 4% of a 400 million metric ton market. The strongest growth in market demand for biobased polymers will be in food packaging and utensils, according to the nova-Institute. Production capacity for biobased PET is projected to grow from 600,000 metric tons in 2013 to 7 million metric tons in 2020, leading the group of polymers. Based on planned capacity, nova-Institute projects similar expansion in production of biobased PHA, and strong growth in production of PLA and biobased polyurethanes (PUR).
Lux Research, based in Boston, has also projected growth in the renewable chemical market through 2018. Their estimate includes the biobased polymer sector as well as intermediates—such as biobased succinic acid or adipic acid—and renewable specialty chemicals—such as farnesene or terpenes. Based on announced capacity construction, Lux expects biobased production capacity for intermediate chemicals to reach 2.9 million metric tons in 2018, reflecting an 11% compound annual growth rate; specialty chemical capacity is perhaps a quarter the size of the intermediate market. Lux Research projects leveling off of production capacity for polymers, due to the low prices of oil and natural gas. But renewable specialty chemicals continue to represent a profitable market opportunity.
Potential Advantages for Consumer Product Applications
Renewable chemicals have been recognized for more than a decade as having environmental, economic, and performance advantages when compared to fossil fuel-based chemicals. Biotech routes to chemical production are inherently consistent with the principles of green chemistry.
In 2004, the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) published a report, Top Value Added Chemicals from Biomass, acknowledging that biobased processes are often faster and more energy efficient production routes than petrochemical processes. Reduction of time and energy inputs potentially can be translated into cost reductions, providing manufacturers an economic benefit. Further, renewable chemical production processes use raw material resources more efficiently and have less environmental impact overall than petrochemical production. The improvement potentially can save manufacturers material handling and regulatory compliance costs. Additionally, biomass is less volatile in price than fossil resources, which have characteristic boom and bust production cycles. Long-term stability in prices for renewable chemicals provide product manufacturers the ability to plan production well in advance and provides hedging.
A few years later, in 2007, the US EPA published a report, Bioengineering for Pollution Prevention, recognizing that industrial biotechnology used in biobased processes and in renewable chemical production can reduce carbon emissions via many of the same attributes recognized by DOE—namely, improved process efficiency, the displacement of fossil fuels and petroleum-based materials, and the creation of closed loop industrial systems that eliminate waste. EPA recognized that these innate characteristics of biotech and biobased processes prevent waste and reduce derivatives, which closely match the principles of green chemistry. Since the introduction of EPA's Presidential Green Chemistry Challenge in 1996, one-third of all awards have gone to industrial biotechnology or biobased processes. Consumer demand for environmentally conscious products continues to rise.
More recently, in April 2016, the White House Office of Science and Technology Policy released a report, Advanced Manufacturing: A Snapshot of Priority Technology Areas Across the Federal Government. This roadmap emphasizes that growth of the biobased economy is dependent on advanced biobased manufacturing and engineering biology. According to the roadmap, synthetic biology foundries hosted by federal government efforts will promote the commercial development of new renewable chemicals via faster and cheaper methodologies that use appropriate design of microorganisms.
Most producers of renewable chemicals can demonstrate comparable performance as drop-in replacements for petroleum-based chemicals. A few applications demonstrate improved performance. To cite one example, Avantium's PEF has superior properties to PET in drink bottle applications, including a higher barrier to oxygen, carbon dioxide and water. These properties can extend product shelf life and reduce production costs for beverage producers. PEF's carbon footprint is 50–70% lower compared to PET.
Conclusion
Consumer product manufacturers have indicated that they are eager to use renewable chemicals in formulations in order to meet consumer demand for environmentally preferable products. The main challenge producers have cited for adoption of renewable chemicals is their ability to secure reliable, competitive supplies for large-scale product applications. Providing sufficiently large-scale supplies of drop-in renewable chemicals for some applications may require multiple manufacturers who adhere to common standards for chemical purity and quality.
Some renewable chemicals—such as succinic acid and PLA—are already being produced commercially by multiple, competing companies and could potentially have commodity applications. A few additional renewable chemicals—such as butanol and isoprene—are approaching the same status. Several other renewable chemicals are being produced at commercial levels by a single company—such as 1,3-PDO, propylene glycol and some diacids—with production tailored to niche product markets.
Many additional companies are scaling up and demonstrating new renewable chemical technologies. And in some cases, there are multiple companies competing to reach commercial scale. Forming partnerships with consumer product manufacturers or larger mid-market chemical producers—who can provide offtake agreements or capital investment in some form—is a common strategy for emerging companies commercializing new renewable chemicals. Ensuring that consumers receive the environmental, economic and performance benefits of renewable chemicals requires an integrated effort across this entire production value chain.