Trends,Prevalence,and Risk Factors of Food Insecurity Among Pregnant and Postpartum Women in the United States: Findings from the 2019

Abstract

Background:

Despite the widespread food insecurity in the United States, there is limited research investigating its prevalence among pregnant women and the potential impact it has on maternal and child health outcomes. This study examined trends in the prevalence of, and investigated risk factors for, food insecurity among peripartum women, using a nationally representative sample in the United States.

Materials and Methods:

This cross-sectional study included pregnant and postpartum women aged 18–49 years who reported being currently pregnant or pregnant in the past 12 months and who participated in the National Health Interview Survey from 2019 to 2021. Weighted multivariable logistic regression analysis was used to estimate associations with food insecurity.

Results:

A total of 1,527 pregnant women, weighted to represent 5,588,192 women in the United States, were included in the analysis. Overall, from 2019 to 2021, 10.8% of peripartum women were food insecure. The prevalence of food insecurity changed substantially between 2019 and 2021 (2019: 10.6% confidence interval [95% CI: 8.7–13.5], 2020: 16.0% [95% CI: 10.9–22.8], 2021: 6.2% [95% CI: 4.2–9.1]). The adjusted odds of food insecurity were significantly higher among pregnant and postpartum women in 2020 (aOR 2.15), who had a health insurance coverage (aOR 2.98) and who had an unmet health care need in the preceding 12 months (aOR 6.52).

Conclusion:

We found that food insecurity was common among peripartum women between 2019 and 2021 and was exacerbated by the COVID-19 pandemic. Identifying the factors that predispose peripartum women to the risk of food insecurity can guide the development and implementation of targeted interventions aimed at reducing the adverse impact of food insecurity on perinatal and infant health.

Introduction

The prenatal and postpartum periods are critically sensitive time periods during which exposures can impact the life course in the short and long term.¹ One important environmental factor which plays an important role in shaping maternal, fetal, and infant health outcomes is maternal preconception and prenatal nutritional status.² Pregnant and postpartum women are particularly vulnerable to the negative consequences of nutritional deficiencies. This is due to the increased nutritional requirements needed to meet the demands of the fetus in utero, as well as the additional nutritional requirements during breastfeeding.^3,4 Hence, factors such as food insecurity, which can result in suboptimal maternal nutritional status, can negatively impact pregnancy outcomes.

Food insecurity is a growing public health concern globally that occurs when individuals experience physical, social, and economic limitations or uncertainties in accessing sufficient, safe, and nutritious food that fulfills their dietary needs and preferences, necessary for an active and healthy life.^3,5 According to estimates from the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), ∼10.2% of households experienced food insecurity in 2021.⁶

Pregnant women are disproportionately at risk of food insecurity.⁷ Their ability to afford and acquire nutritious foods may be compromised by temporary or permanent exits from the workforce, leading to material hardships and, subsequently, deprivation.^8,9 In addition, disruptions in essential services, such as those caused by the COVID-19 pandemic, can further exacerbate their vulnerability to food insecurity. Research has highlighted the negative implications of food insecurity during pregnancy on perinatal health outcomes. These include adverse effects on postpartum breastfeeding practices, perinatal mental health (such as depression, anxiety, and perceived stress), increased risk of overweight, gestational diabetes, insufficient maternal weight gain, low birth weight, and birth defects.^3,10

–14

Given the widespread crisis of food insecurity in the United States, there is a pressing need for research focused on understanding its prevalence among peripartum women.^3,4,7,15 Recent findings by Azevedo et al. from a systematic review indicate a high prevalence of food insecurity among pregnant and postpartum women, particularly during the COVID-19 pandemic.¹⁵ However, it is noteworthy that only four studies within the U.S. context were included in their review. Moreover, these studies utilized different methods (scales) to assess food insecurity, predominantly recruiting participants from health care facilities. Our study aims to extend existing evidence by analyzing trends in food insecurity prevalence and identifying predictors of household food insecurity among pregnant and postpartum women in the United States using data from recent, nationally representative population surveys.

Materials and Methods

Study design, data source, and study sample

We performed a cross-sectional analysis of pooled data from the National Health Interview Survey (NHIS) between 2019 and 2021. The NHIS is an annual representative cross-sectional survey conducted by the U.S. Centers for Disease Control (CDC) and the National Center for Health Statistics (NHCS). It utilizes a multistage stratified cluster sampling methodology to gather comprehensive information on demographic characteristics, socioeconomic status, health insurance coverage, and health care access and utilization. The primary objective of the NHIS is to monitor health, illness, and disability trends among the U.S. civilian noninstitutionalized population.

For this study, we specifically focused on women aged 18–49 years who reported being currently pregnant or having been pregnant within the last calendar year at the time of the interview (Fig. 1). Our examination of food insecurity data spanned the years 2019 to 2021. To ensure the accuracy and representativeness of our findings, we applied 3-year sampling weights to our final analytic sample. These weights, obtained by dividing the annual sampling weight by 3, were in accordance with NHIS guidance to account for the complex survey design (including clustering and stratification), address nonresponse bias, and incorporate multiple survey cycles.¹⁶ The weighted sample size for analysis was 5,588,192. Since the NHIS data are deidentified and publicly available, Institutional Review Board (IRB) approval was not required. All analyses were carried out in 2023.

FIG. 1.

Flow diagram indicating total population of individuals eligible for study inclusion from the NHIS for 2019–2021 and eligibility criteria for final sample of pregnant women 18 to 49 years of age. NHIS, National Health Interview Survey.

Outcome

Food insecurity was measured using the 10-item USDA Family Food Security questionnaire, which assesses food security over a 30-day period.¹⁷ Participants were asked questions such as whether they were worried about running out of food, couldn't afford balanced meals, reduced meal size or skipped meals, or ate less than they wanted due to lack of funds in the last 30 days. Scores ranged from 0 to 10, with higher scores indicating greater food insecurity. Food security status was categorized as high (0), marginal (1–2), low (3–5), or very low (6–10). Food security status was also dichotomized as food secured (high or marginal) or food insecure (low or very low).

Explanatory variables

The selection of explanatory variables in this study was based on a comprehensive literature review, consideration of the biological plausibility of the exposure-outcome relationship, and the availability of variables across all surveys.^16,18
–20 These variables were categorized into three main groups: demographic, socioeconomic, and health-related factors.

The demographic factors included age, categorized into three groups: 18–24, 25–34, and 35–49 years. Race/ethnicity was classified as Hispanic, non-Hispanic White, non-Hispanic Black, and others. Marital status was divided into three categories: never married, currently married, and formerly married. The number of children in the household was categorized as 0 and 1 or more, while the number of adults in the household was classified as 1–2 or >3. Nativity (yes/no), place of residence (large central/fringe metro, medium/small metro, nonmetropolitan), and U.S. region (Northeast, Midwest, West, South) were also considered as demographic factors.

The socioeconomic characteristics included education, categorized as less than high school, high school, and higher than high school. Poverty income ratio was divided into three groups: <1, 1–1.99, and 2 or more. Health insurance status was classified as not insured or insured. The health-related characteristics consisted of self-reported health status, categorized as excellent/very good, good, or fair/poor. Unmet medical need in the past 12 months was categorized as yes or no.

Statistical analysis

We conducted all analyses using SAS software, version 9.4. Weighted univariate and bivariable analyses were performed to describe the prevalence of food insecurity among peripartum women in the United States. To produce nationally representative estimates and calculate survey-weighted frequencies and proportions of participants' sociodemographic and health characteristics, we used SAS survey procedures (PROC SURVEYFREQ and PROC SURVEYMEANS) and incorporated the NHIS strata, primary sampling unit, and sample adult weights. Rao-Scott chi-square tests were used to compare these characteristics between food-secure and food-insecure women.

Weighted logistic regression models (PROC SURVEY LOGISTIC) were used to determine the unadjusted and adjusted relationship between each independent variable and food insecurity. In the adjusted model, all independent variables were included based on their theoretical relevance to food insecurity. The outcomes of the weighted regression analysis were presented as odds ratios (ORs) accompanied by confidence intervals (95% CIs). Statistical significance was determined with a threshold of p < 0.05, and all tests were conducted with a two-tailed approach.

Results

The study population comprised a total of 1,527 noninstitutionalized pregnant and postpartum women aged 18–49 years (weighted to represent 5,588,192 women) from 2019 to 2021, with a mean (SD) age of 30.8 (5.6) years. The prevalence of food insecurity varied significantly among peripartum women, depending on their demographic, socioeconomic, and health-related circumstances (Table 1). Food insecurity was most prevalent among peripartum women aged 15–24 years (24.2%), identifying as non-Hispanic Black (17.8%) and Hispanic (12.8%), those living in households with at least one child (11.8%), those with a poverty income ratio (PIR) <1 (27.9%), those with less than a high school level of education (30.3%), those with fair/poor self-reported health status (41.7%), and those with unmet need for medical care in the preceding 12 months (37.0%). There were relatively minor differences in marital status and place of residence, and no significant differences were observed in prevalence with respect to health insurance coverage, the number of adults in the household, nativity status, and the region of the country where respondents resided.

Table 1.

Sociodemographic and Health Characteristics of Pregnant and Postpartum Women, Overall and by Food Security Status, National Health Interview Survey, 2019–2021

Variables			Food insecurity
	Study population, n = 1,527 (weighted n = 5,588,192)		No, n = 1,381 (weighted n = 4,982,775)		Yes, n = 146 (weighted n = 605,417)
	N	% ^a	% ^a	95% CI	% ^a	95% CI	p
Overall prevalence	1,527	100.0	89.2	86.5–91.3	10.8	8.7–13.5	<0.0001
NHIS survey year
2019	639	34.9	89.4	86.2–91.9	10.6	8.1–13.8	0.0008
2020	345	31.5	84.0	77.2–89.1	16.0	10.9–22.8
2021	543	33.6	93.8	90.9–95.8	6.2	4.2–9.1
Demographic characteristics
Age group, years
18–24	215	19.8	75.8	66.6–83.1	24.2	16.9–33.4	<0.0001
25–34	920	59.0	91.7	89.2–93.7	8.3	6.3–10.8
35–49	392	21.2	94.5	91.3–96.6	5.5	3.4–8.7
Race and ethnicity
Hispanic	308	22.8	87.2	81.6–91.2	12.8	8.8–18.4	0.02
Non-Hispanic White	178	55.0	91.1	87.6–93.8	8.9	6.2–12.4
Non-Hispanic Black	890	14.2	82.2	73.2–88.7	17.8	11.3–26.8
Others	151	7.9	93.7	87.7–96.8	6.3	3.2–12.3
Marital status
Never married	213	15.0	83.6	76.7–88.7	16.4	11.3–23.3	0.005
Currently married/cohabiting	1,246	81.2	90.7	87.7–93.0	9.3	7.0–12.3
Formerly married	66	3.7	79.4	65.7–88.6	20.6	11.5–34.3
Region
Northeast	229	15.9	88.2	80.3–93.2	11.8	6.8–19.7	0.24
Midwest	361	21.6	89.7	84.6–93.2	10.3	6.8–15.4
South	552	39.6	87.1	81.9–90.9	12.9	9.1–18.1
West	385	22.9	93.0	89.0–95.6	7.0	4.4–11.0
Place of residence
Large central/fringe metro	816	53.3	92.5	89.5–94.7	7.5	5.4–10.5	0.02
Medium and small metropolitan	481	30.7	85.4	80.3–89.4	14.6	10.6–19.8
Nonmetropolitan	230	16.0	85.4	75.3–91.9	14.6	8.1–24.8
Nativity
U.S. Born	1,192	77.9	89.7	86.7–92.0	10.3	8.0–13.2	0.33
Foreign Born	332	22.1	87.0	80.7–91.5	13.0	8.5–19.3
No. of adults in household
1–2	1,369	80.3	89.1	86.5–91.2	10.9	8.8–13.6	0.85
3+	151	19.5	89.8	80.3–95.0	10.2	5.0–19.7
No. of children in household
0	227	13.9	95.2	91.9–97.2	4.8	2.8–8.1	0.0012
1+	1,293	85.9	88.2	85.2–90.7	11.8	9.3–14.8
Socioeconomic characteristics
PIR^b
Low (<1)	264	18.9	72.1	64.3–78.7	27.9	21.3–35.7	<0.0001
Mid (1 ≥ PIR <2)	295	23.2	81.5	73.8–87.3	18.5	12.7–26.2
High (2+)	968	57.9	97.8	96.3–98.7	2.2	1.3–3.7
Education
Less than high school	133	11.1	69.8	57.6–79.6	30.3	20.4–42.4	<0.0001
High school	295	25.1	88.4	83.0–92.2	11.6	7.7–17.0
Higher than high school	1,096	63.9	93.7	91.6–95.3	6.3	4.7–8.4
Health insurance coverage
Not insured	134	10.8	84.7	76.8–90.2	15.3	9.8–23.2	<0.0001
Insured	1,392	89.2	89.7	89.7–91.3	10.3	8.0–92.0
Health-related
Self-reported health
Excellent/very good	1,123	71.4	93.8	91.4–95.6	6.22	4.5–8.6	<0.0001
Good	319	22.3	83.2	75.2–89.0	16.8	11.0–24.8
Fair/poor	85	6.35	58.3	44.0–71.3	41.7	28.7–56.1
Unmet medical need in past 12 months
No	1,419	92.4	91.3	88.7–93.4	8.68	6.6–11.3	<0.0001
Yes	108	7.6	63.0	51.3–73.3	37.0	26.7–48.7

Estimates are nationally representative and are calculated adjusting for individual weights, stratum, and primary sampling unit. Percentage may not sum to 100 due to missing values or rounding.

All percentages shown are weighted percentages.

PIR was estimated as the ratio of a household income, as reported by the participant, to the appropriate poverty threshold for household size, as defined by the U.S. Census Bureau.

CI, confidence interval; NHIS, National Health Interview Survey; PIR, poverty income ratio.

Overall, 10.8% (95% CI: 8.7–13.5) of peripartum women reported living in households with food insecurity between 2019 and 2021. When comparing the unadjusted reported food insecurity for each survey year, a significant increase in food insecurity was observed between 2019 and 2020. The proportion of the population experiencing food insecurity rose from 10.6% to 16.1% (95% CI: 8.07–13.8 and 95% CI: 10.9–22.8, respectively). However, there was a significant decrease in food insecurity between 2020 and 2021, with the proportion of the population experiencing difficulty accessing enough food to meet their needs decreasing from 16.1% to 6.2% (95% CI: 4.2–9.1) (Fig. 2).

FIG. 2.

Trends in unadjusted prevalence of food insecurity among pregnant and postpartum women, NHIS, 2019–2021.

Predictors of food insecurity

Table 2 displays the ORs of food insecurity for demographic, socioeconomic, and health-related characteristics analyzed, both in crude and adjusted models. The findings indicate that the odds of food insecurity were significantly higher in 2020 than in 2019 after adjusting for covariates (aOR = 2.15, 95% CI: 1.09–4.23). Moreover, individuals who had health insurance coverage had significantly higher odds of experiencing food insecurity than those without (aOR = 2.98, 95% CI: 1.16–7.63). Similarly, peripartum women with an unmet medical need in the past 12 months had significantly higher odds of food insecurity compared to those without a medical need (aOR = 6.52, 95% CI = 3.60–10.63). Conversely, the results revealed that race and ethnicity, marital status, place of residence, number of children in household, PIR >1 but <2, and having higher than a high school degree were not associated with food insecurity.

Table 2.

Unadjusted and Adjusted Analyses of Sociodemographic and Health-Related Factors Associated with Food Insecurity, 2019–2021 National Health Interview Survey Sample

Variables	Unadjusted		Adjusted
Variables	OR	95% CI	OR	95% CI
NHIS survey year
2019	1.00		1.00
2020	1.60	0.94–2.73	2.15	1.09–4.23
2021	0.56	0.34–0.91	0.70	0.37–1.35
Demographic characteristics
Age group, years
18–24	1.00		1.00
25–34	0.28	0.17–0.48	0.41	0.21–0.78
35–49	0.18	0.09–0.036	0.25	0.10–0.62
Race and ethnicity
Hispanic	1.52	0.87–2.66	0.63	0.27–1.47
Non-Hispanic White	1.00		1.00
Non-Hispanic Black	2.23	1.16–4.28	0.90	0.43–1.89
Others	0.70	0.30–1.59	1.05	0.32–3.45
Marital status
Never married	1.00		1.00
Currently married/cohabiting	0.52	0.31–0.89	0.94	0.43–2.07
Formerly married	1.32	0.59–2.96	1.39	0.48–4.06
Region
Northeast			1.00
Midwest	0.86	0.40–1.83	0.68	0.29–1.56
South	1.11	0.54–2.29	0.59	0.28–1.24
West	0.56	0.26–1.23	0.38	0.19–0.96
Place of residence
Nonmetropolitan	1.00		1.00
Medium and small metropolitan	1.00	0.47–2.12	1.40	0.65–2.80
Large central/fringe metro	0.48	0.23–1.01	0.81	0.38–1.79
Nativity
Foreign born	1.00		1.00
U.S. born	0.77	0.45–1.31	0.46	0.23–0.92
No. of adults in household
1–2	1.00		1.00
3+	0.93	0.42–2.07	0.42	0.20–0.91
No. of children in household
0	1.00		1.00
1+	2.64	1.44–4.84	1.76	0.73–4.27
Socioeconomic characteristics
PIR
Low (<1)	1.00		1.00
Mid (1 ≥ PIR <2)	0.59	0.33–1.04	0.84	0.47–1.48
High (2+)	0.06	0.03–0.11	0.10	0.04–0.22
Education
Less than high school	1.00		1.00
High school	0.30	0.15–0.62	0.39	0.17–0.89
Higher than high school	0.16	0.08–0.29	0.59	0.27–1.23
Health insurance coverage
Not insured	1.00		1.00
Insured	0.63	0.36–1.13	2.98	1.16–7.63
Health
Self-reported health
Fair/poor	1.00		1.00
Good	0.28	0.13–0.60	0.24	0.10–0.57
Excellent/very good	0.09	0.05–0.18	0.14	0.06–0.32
Unmet medical need in past 12 months
No	1.00		1.00
Yes	6.18	3.60–10.63	6.52	3.60–10.63

Values in bold indicate statistical significance.

Estimates are nationally representative and are calculated adjusting for person weights, stratum, and primary sampling unit.

OR, odds ratio.

There was a significant association between increasing age of women and lower odds of food insecurity. Peripartum women aged 25–34 years were 0.41 times less likely to have food insecurity (0.21–0.78), while those aged 35–49 years were 0.25 times (95% CI: 0.10–0.62) less likely to have food insecurity compared to women aged 18–24 years. In addition, individuals residing in the Western region of the United States had significantly reduced odds of food insecurity (aOR = 0.39, 95% CI: 0.19–0.96) compared to those in the Northeast region. Peripartum women born in the United States had a 0.42 odds of having food insecurity (95% CI: 0.20–0.91). Furthermore, households with an increasing number of adults were less likely to be food insecure (aOR = 0.42, 95% CI = 0.20–0.91) compared to households with only one or two adults.

Those with a high PIR were 0.10 less likely to be food insecure (95% CI: 0.04–0.22), and those with a high school degree were significantly less likely to be food insecure compared to those with less than a high school degree (aOR = 0.39, 95% CI: 0.17–0.89). Self-reported health status was also significantly associated with reduced odds of food insecurity. Based on the study sample, those who reported good health status were 0.24 times less likely to be food insecure (95% CI: 0.10–0.57), while those reporting excellent/very good health status were 0.14 times less likely to be food insecure (95% CI: 0.06–0.32).

Discussion

This study contributes to the existing literature by examining food insecurity among peripartum women in a high-income country and provides valuable insights into the characteristics of pregnant and postpartum women living in food-insecure households in the United States. The study found that overall at least 1 in 10 pregnant and postpartum women in the United States lived in food-insecure households between 2019 and 2021. In addition, there was a 50.9% increase in food insecurity prevalence between 2019 and 2020, followed by a 61.3% decline in food insecurity prevalence between 2020 and 2021. Based on the adjusted model, which controlled for several other covariates, the study identified several demographic, socioeconomic, and health-related factors that were significantly associated with the food insecurity status of pregnant and postpartum women.

While our study's findings remain consistent with other research investigating food insecurity among peripartum women, there is observed variability in the prevalence of food insecurity across different studies and populations.^2,8,21,22 These disparities in estimates underscore the pervasive nature of food insecurity within the obstetric population and could be attributed to several conceptual and methodological factors. First, our study included both pregnant and postpartum women, resulting in a large sample size. Second, the study sample was obtained from three rounds of a nationally representative survey.

A third factor could be the differences in the scales used to assess food insecurity. Finally, the high prevalence observed in our study may be attributed to the disruptions caused by the COVID-19 pandemic. Moreover, hospital-based studies focusing on specific groups, such as women with hypertensive disorders of pregnancy and gestational diabetes mellitus, have reported much higher prevalence rates of 40%–55% compared to our study's estimates.^23,24 However, it is important to note that these studies had limited generalizability due to extremely small sample sizes (<150).

In addition, the findings in our study align with a recent scoping review of the literature, which identified various social, economic, and health variables as established risk factors for food insecurity among pregnant women and caregivers of young children.²⁵ Our study revealed that peripartum women in the United States were less likely to experience food insecurity if they were older, had three or more adults in their household, were born in the United States, or resided in the Western region of the country. However, the limited research on sociodemographic factors associated with food insecurity in a nationally representative sample of an obstetric cohort restricts our ability to make direct comparisons with other studies and examine the contrasts in findings.

In our study, we found that socioeconomic stability among peripartum women was associated with a lower likelihood of experiencing food insecurity. While it is plausible that employed pregnant and postpartum women have higher household income, enabling them to afford and purchase healthier, although more expensive, food options, we were unable to examine the specific impact of employment status on food insecurity due to a high rate of missing observations in our dataset (∼80%). Surprisingly, we also observed a positive association between food insecurity and health insurance coverage, which is an important finding considering the existing literature suggesting that health insurance may improve food security.²⁶ Although the direct link between how having health insurance may mitigate shortages in nutritious food supply is not well understood, it is possible that health insurance operates through intermediary pathways. A study by Taylor et al. revealed that over 50% of peripartum women with health insurance, including 64% of those with private insurance, reported being unable to afford health care.¹⁸ A plausible assumption could be that despite having health insurance, pregnant and postpartum women may have limited resources to cover both health care costs and other basic necessities like food, resulting in food insecurity. In addition, the high cost of perinatal health care may constrain families to prioritize medical bills over purchasing food, further exacerbating food insecurity.

Therefore, addressing the issue of health care unaffordability could play a crucial role in promoting the health and well-being of peripartum women and their families, ultimately preventing food insecurity among this vulnerable population.

A major strength of our study is the use of a pooled nationally representative sample from the NHIS, which allowed us to examine the overall burden of food insecurity over 3 years and shed light on how the COVID-19 pandemic likely impacted vulnerable groups such as pregnant and postpartum women. We suggest that future research should examine the extent to which the pandemic affected food insecurity among these groups and identify strategies to mitigate its impact. As interventions to address food insecurity among pregnant and postpartum women continue to evolve, understanding what works and what does not, as well as the challenges, will help in identifying strategies that would strengthen implementation and improve outcomes. Our findings also lay the foundation upon which government and health policymakers can leverage to design contextually appropriate policies that ensure food security among pregnant and postpartum women which can be achieved by creating social capital and providing financial resources.

A few limitations were encountered in this study. Although educational status and enrollment in the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program have been shown to be associated with higher food security, we were unable to evaluate this association in our study due to the high proportion of missing observations (>40%). Third, the magnitude of food insecurity in this study is likely to vary from findings in other studies depending on the scale used to measure food insecurity. As such, caution is required when interpreting the findings. Although estimates from this study were weighted to account for nonresponse bias, the absolute numbers of pregnant and postpartum women are smaller, which may result in an underestimation of the prevalence of food insecurity in these subgroups of women. In addition, the small sample size limited our ability to examine the impact of sociodemographic and health characteristics within the different subcategories of food security.

Conclusion

In this study representing >5 million peripartum women, food insecurity was found to be prevalent. Moreover, the COVID-19 pandemic significantly exacerbated the prevalence of food insecurity among this population. This underscores an urgent need for clinical and public health strategies to address food insecurity among pregnant and postpartum women. As research efforts continue to focus on vulnerable groups, including pregnant and postpartum women, it is essential to understand which interventions have been successful and to what extent these interventions have impacted pregnancy outcomes and postpartum behaviors.

Footnotes

Authors' Contributions

Conceptualization, O.I.U. and C.E.O.; methodology, O.I.U. and C.E.O.; formal analysis, O.I.U; data curation, O.I.U. and C.E.O.; writing—original draft preparation, O.I.U. and P.O.; writing—review and editing, O.I.U, P.O., and R.S.K.; visualization, O.I.U; supervision, R.S.K. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the article.

Author Disclosure Statement

No competing financial interests exist.

Funding Information

No funding was received for this article.

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Trends,Prevalence,and Risk Factors of Food Insecurity Among Pregnant and Postpartum Women in the United States: Findings from the 2019–2021 National Health Interview Survey

Abstract

Background:

Materials and Methods:

Results:

Conclusion:

Introduction

Materials and Methods

Study design, data source, and study sample

Outcome

Explanatory variables

Statistical analysis

Results

Predictors of food insecurity

Discussion

Conclusion

Footnotes

Authors' Contributions

Author Disclosure Statement

Funding Information

References