Looking Back and Moving Forward: A Spatial-Based Pilot Study of Psychological Security and Social Cohesion Among Maldivian Academics amid Climate Change

Abstract

Climate change poses one of the greatest contemporary societal threats and is intrinsically linked to the existence of the Maldives. The Munich Security Conference 2024 emphasized the importance of launching an open dialogue to elucidate the intricate relationships between climate change and the pressing threats to global security. With increasing climate risk perception, a devastating impact on people’s psyche and mental health, such as lack of motivation, uncertainty and fear, low mood, and depression can be intensified. Therefore, reporting preliminary findings from the current pilot sample is of prime importance in recommending trajectories for a sustainable, climate-resilient community. The current study aims at investigating the nexus between climate change perception, psychological security, and social cohesion among the academic staff in the Maldives. A descriptive, correlational approach was adopted. A sample of 112 academic staff from Maldives National University were recruited to complete the climate change perceptions (CCPs), the Urban Residents Psychological Security (URPS), and rated Neighborhood Cohesion Instrument (NCI). A strong statistically negative significant correlation was found between CCPs and URPS (r = −0.733, p < 0.001) and a moderately negative correlation between CCPs and NCI (r = −0.459, p < 0.001). The unstandardized coefficient (B) was −3.144 for academic experience, indicating that for each year increase in work, the URPS score decreases by 3.144. Participants had a high climate change perception score, and moderate psychological security and social cohesion scores. These preliminary findings call for the Maldives College of Higher Education to enact environmental and disaster education initiatives to create a sustainable, climate-resilient health system.

Introduction

The Maldives is an archipelago of over 1,100 low-lying coral islands and atolls in the Indian Ocean. Climate change poses one of the greatest contemporary societal threats, intrinsically linked to the existence of the Maldives (Luetz, 2017). Owing to the accelerating rate of climate change, scientists predict that 80% of this country will no longer exist by 2050. Warne (2021) also predicted that most of the Maldives would be devastated in the 21st century. This is attributed to the fact that many areas of this island country are low-lying, with most of its land area being less than 1 m above sea level (Manzo et al., 2021). This situation heightens the threat that many areas of the Maldives will be subjected to severe storms and rising sea levels. According to a World Bank report, the entire nation of the Maldives could be submerged as sea levels rise by 10–100 cm by the year 2100 (Luetz, 2017).

Despite the growing awareness of climate-related disruptions to human health within the international academic community, it remains unclear how Maldivian academics perceive climate change and its consequences. As a result, these disruptions should be more perceptible to the Maldivian academics during the next decade as the possibility of severe storms and rising sea levels continues to increase (Amores et al., 2021). Literature indicates that climate change perceptions (CCPs) are influenced by cognitive processes, such as information assimilation, and social interactions within specific cultural contexts. Climate change is primarily identified through mass and interpersonal communication, formal education, and various other channels (Sterman and Sweeney, 2007; Spence et al., 2016; Clayton and Manning, 2018). Consequently, media outlets such as television and newspapers play a crucial role in shaping public CCPs by emphasizing debates on the topic and linking it to pertinent psychological profiles (Clayton and Manning, 2018).

As Maldivians grapple with the ecological circumstances brought on by the unequivocal geographical effects of climate change, their sense of psychological security is at risk. According to Maslow’s hierarchical theory of needs, psychological security is defined as “a feeling of confidence, safety, and freedom that separates from fear and anxiety, and especially the feeling of satisfying one’s needs now (and in the future)” (Maslow et al., 1945). In accordance with Maslow, Cong and An (2004) defined psychological security as “the presentiment that may arise from dangers or risks in the physiology or the psychology of the individual, as well as the sense of powerfulness and powerlessness of the individual in dealing with dangers or risks, mainly related to the sense of certainty and controllability.” Abraham Maslow mapped security and safety needs on the pyramid diagram as the second instinctual drives that prompt human beings to take actions to adequately fulfill these needs. He theorized that individuals’ endeavors to live in a safe environment or neighborhood and to maintain emotional and social stability are examples of actions motivated by security needs. Maslow also proposed that the safety and security needs of people living in developed countries are more pronounced in emergency situations such as natural disasters (Maslow et al., 1945). Psychological insecurities, on the contrary, are reflected in an individual’s anxiety concerning potential harm and threats and living in a risky and uncertain society (Atta et al., 2024; Clayton et al., 2017; Leiserowitz et al., 2021). One of the few studies on psychological security related to climate change declared that 59% of Australians felt psychologically unsafe because of climate hazards (UNICEF, 2019).

It has been documented that feelings of psychological security can enable individuals to engage positively and trustfully with their community (Lloyd & Hannikainen, 2022). Psychologically, when inhabitants feel that their area of residence is changing from what they are accustomed to, their sense of social cohesion might be compromised (Cianconi et al., 2020). Social cohesion is a social process that reflects the inhabitants’ needs for personal growth, a sense of belonging, equitable sharing of resources, and common rules for resolving conflicts (Manca, 2014). Buckner (1988) defines social cohesion as “a neighborhood where residents, on average, report feeling a strong sense of community, report engaging in frequent acts of neighboring, and are highly attracted to live in and remain residents of the neighborhood.” However, other scholars define social cohesion as “the extent of connectedness and solidarity among groups in society. It relates to two main dimensions: the sense of belonging of a community and the relationships among members within the community itself” (Adger, 2010; Manca, 2014). In this case, social cohesion exemplifies going beyond the level of family and friends to include a sense of belonging to the natural environment and developing a sense of shared identity and purpose (Lloyd & Hannikainen, 2022). Emerging evidence suggests that social cohesion plays a dyadic role in moderating and mediating between detrimental neighborhood surroundings and indices of inhabitants’ health and overall well-being (Brisson et al., 2018; Dawson et al., 2019; DiClemente et al., 2018; Villodas et al., 2023). Paradoxically, social cohesiveness could be adversely affected by climate change by precipitating conflicts and making resources scarce (Malerba, 2022).

Studies have routinely assumed that the perception of security can serve as the lens through which individuals view the world as they are part of the social agenda and connected with the current serious societal issues such as climate change (Myers, 2020; Martin et al., 2016; Zotova & Karapetyan, 2018). For instance, a great deal of research and consideration of Conservation of Resources Theory in the area of natural disaster recovery posits that the loss of resources (e.g., psychological, social, or material) is a crucial determinant of stress in the wake of natural and disasters from climate change (Blaze and Shwalb, 2009; Hobfoll, 1989). With respect to individuals’ personal and social resources, Hobfoll and Lilly (1993) have explored 74 resources in the Conservation of Resources Evaluation. Primary resources, such as food and housing, are directly correlated with survival. Secondary resources, such as social support and the community environment, derive their reinforcing value from their correlations with primary resources, including food and housing. Tertiary resources are culturally constructed and provide access to primary and secondary resources, such as social status and accomplishment (Hobfoll and Lilly, 1993). Collectively, the loss of such resources can reduce psychological security, disrupt the social fabric, and weaken social cohesion as they are deemed basic needs by their necessity for survival (Koehler, 2021).

Academics in many countries are attributed as participants in the development and sovereignty of nations. They carry the virtuous responsibility of teaching, influencing generations, and advancing higher education (Van Dijk et al., 2021). In view of this, a comprehensive understanding of academicians’ perceptions related to climate change could open up ways to foster student engagement in climate change mitigation. Hess and Collins (2018) suggest that academicians who believe climate change is an urgent issue may influence students to feel the same way. Conversely, if academicians underestimate the impact of extreme weather events amplified by climate change, higher education is likely to have less impact on student engagement in climate change mitigation. From another perspective, addressing the psychosocial profile of academicians has the potential to bridge the gap in knowledge by raising public awareness about climate change within their communities. This, in turn, could help in developing targeted strategies for adaptation and resilience, both within academic institutions and the broader community.

The Munich Security Conference (MSC) 2024 emphasized the importance of launching an open dialogue regarding the intricate relationships between climate change and pressing threats to global security. The conference also asserted the urgency of becoming increasingly visible and outspoken on this relationship, which might inspire the public to enhance their contributions to climate change mitigation (MSC, 2024). This aspect urges the researchers in the current study to acknowledge that this looming crisis should not be ignored and needs full attention to address this gap in knowledge and recommend trajectories for a sustainable, climate-resilient community. Our work specifically aims to address the nexus between the perception of climate change and its relationship with the sense of psychological security and social cohesion among academic staff in the Maldives. Further objectives include analyzing the relationship between the participants’ characteristics and the measured variables, as well as exploring the predicting factors affecting the participants’ sense of psychological security. To address these objectives, we hypothesized that perceptions of climate change would be negatively correlated with psychological security and the perceived sense of social cohesion among academic staff. In this regard, academicians with higher levels of climate change perception would perceive a lower sense of psychological security and thus have a lower sense of social cohesion.

Participants and Methods

Design

The study is adopting a descriptive correlational quantitative design. The study followed the guidelines for reporting Observational Studies: Strengthening the Reporting of Observational Studies in Epidemiology Statement.

Participants

The Epi Info 7 program version 10 was used to estimate the sample size using the following parameters: population size 290, confidence coefficient = 95%, expected frequency of 50%, and acceptable error of 5%. The minimum sample size was 166 faculty members. Proportional stratified random sampling was used to recruit study participants, representing different faculty ranks such as instructor, assistant lecturer, lecturer, assistant professor, associate professor, and full professor. The academic staff at the Maldives National University and having at least 1-year academic experience before the study were included. Those who were not available during the period of data collection because of either sabbatical leave or maternity leave were excluded. In addition, academics who are not holding the Maldives nationality were excluded.

Instruments

Tool I: CCP Scale

This scale is developed by van Valkengoed et al. (2021) to measure people’s CCPs. The CCP Scale comprise eight self-reported items that empirically assess three basic dimensions, namely, reality, causes, and valence of consequences, of climate change. Items pertaining to the reality of climate change are covered by “I believe that climate change is real” and “Climate change is not occurring.” To assess the perceived causes related to climate change dimension, three items were included: “Human activities are a major cause of climate change,” “Climate change is mostly caused by human activity,” and “The main causes of climate change are human activities.” However, the items of consequences related to climate change are measured by “Climate change will bring about serious negative consequences,” “Climate change will bring about serious negative consequences,” and “Overall, climate change will bring more negative than positive consequences to the world.” Responses were rated on a 7-point Likert scale (1 = “strongly disagree,” 7 = “strongly agree”). Respondents who selected “strongly disagree” or “disagree” on the climate change reality item skipped the items measuring the perceived causes and consequences of climate change. As these respondents do not acknowledge the reality of climate change, they cannot continue to answer the questions relating to its causes and consequences and thereby are not included in these tripartite analyses. All items are summed up to calculate the overall scores for CCPs. However, the second item of the reality scale (“Climate change is not occurring”) is reverse coded. The higher the mean score, the greater the perceptions of climate change (van Valkengoed et al., 2021). The scale had good internal consistency in the current study, as indicated by Cronbach’s alpha value of 0.87. The sociodemographic characteristics such as age, sex, marital status, and years of academic experience were attached to this tool.

Tool II: The Urban Residents Psychological Security

The psychological security of urban residents is developed by Wang et al., (2019). The scale includes 20 self-reported items, compiled to measure the psychological security related to climate change. The Urban Resident’s Psychological Security (URPS) Scale is divided into three basic dimensions, namely, self-psychological security, social security, and natural environmental security. Self-psychological security is concerned with “the safety expectation of urban personnel for future life and interpersonal relationships according to their past life experience.” This dimension encompasses six items. The dimension of social environmental security is explained as “the individual’s sense of stability and belonging within urban life” and consists of nine items. Natural environmental security dimension implies “the overall perception of urban personnel on the natural environment state of living cities such as climate change risk perception and natural disaster risk perception”. Responses will be rated on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (“very unsafe”) to 5 (“very safe”). The higher the score, the higher the sense of psychological security. The URPS Scale was valid and reliable as Cronbach’s alpha coefficient was 0.78 (Wang et al., 2019). The scale demonstrated that overall reliability of the scale was acceptable in the present study as Cronbach’s alpha coefficient was 0.82.

Tool III: The Neighborhood Cohesion Instrument

The Neighborhood Cohesion Instrument (NCI) is a widely used scale designed to assess neighborhood ties and social cohesion. The NCI encompasses 18 self-report items divided into three basic constructs, namely, the attraction to neighborhood, psychological sense of community, and neighboring. Attraction to neighborhood is elucidated as “the eagerness to remain a resident in the neighborhood, and it can be used to assess residents’ attachment to a particular neighborhood.” It is covered by items 1, 5, and 13. The psychological sense of community is defined as “the attachment or shared emotional connection that people may experience toward others in their neighborhood/community.” It is measured by items 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, and 18. Neighboring is explained as “the degree of social interaction within the neighborhood” and covered by items 3, 7, 9, 11, 15, and 17. Responses were rated on a 5-point Likert-type scale ranging from 5 (strongly agree) to 1 (strongly disagree). Items number 5 and 15 were inversely scored. The average scores of the corresponding items are calculated to compute the total measure score. The higher the score, the greater the level of the measured construct. The instrument was reliable as Cronbach’s alpha equaled 0.95 (Buckner, 1988; Li, Hsu, and Hsu 2011). In the present study, the NCI scale showed acceptable internal consistency of 0.89.

Data Collection

Data collection proceeded after the approval from the ethics committee was granted (Institutional Review Board’s Approval No: RC/2023/ATCRMNU/07). Data were collected from May 26 to January 30, 2024. The office of vice dean of the faculty at Maldives National University was contacted to attain a list of the academic staff. Then, their names were alphabetically arranged in order and randomly enlisted using a random number generator program. The data collection tools were digitized in Google Forms, whose link was shared with the respondents through their academic emails. The web-based self-report questionnaire was provided to academicians who voluntarily agreed to take part after they were informed about the study aim and objectives. All submitted responses were electronically saved in a Google Drive in a password-protected folder. The first two sections of the form provided the respondents with the study aim and objectives, and the consent form. Each respondent is required to read these first two sections and sign the consent form before proceeding to the questionnaires. Appending the respondents’ signature implies their voluntary engagement. The expected average time for completion of the questionnaires was 15–20 min. The participants receive seven further reminders to complete the survey. Only one response per faculty member was allowed. A total of 166 questionnaires were distributed, and 112 valid responses were received, generating an overall response rate of 67.47%. The reasons for the low response rate in this study could be because of to the timing of posting the survey. The study tools were originally posted online at the end of May 2023 when most academicians finished their classes and started the summer vacation. The postal questionnaire survey also extended to the beginning of the current academic year (2023/2024), when they were occasioned by the busy schedule because of academic duties and administrative demands. The factors that might prevent their willingness to complete and submit their responses. Corresponding to Fosnacht et al. (2017), response rates to online surveys are typically low; in a college setting, and response rates between 5% and 10% can be deemed acceptable.

The limited number of participants does establish a limitation of the present study. In addition, the study is of a cross-sectional correlational nature, precluding the inference of a causal relationship. Despite these limitations, there is a noticeable dearth of studies examining the variables studied in the Maldives, highlighting the need to address this gap in the face of the looming crisis.

The descriptive approach used in this study is commonly used in social research, aiming to provide a snapshot of current situations and events (Babbie, 2004). Furthermore, our study relied on a survey, a reliable method for monitoring perceptions and attitudes (Babbie, 2004).

Ethical Considerations

All study procedures were carried out according to the relevant guidelines and regulations of the Declaration of Helsinki (October 2008). The respondents were guaranteed withdrawal after reassuring them that obtained data would only be used to meet the study purpose.

Data Analysis

The data were analyzed using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 23. Data from this study were depicted using descriptive statistics of number, percentage, mean, and standard deviation to describe demographic characteristics. The inferential statistic of Pearson’s correlation coefficient was operated to examine the direction of relationship between the measured variables. Logistic linear regression analysis for factors affecting URPS. The significance of the obtained findings at p < 0.05.

Results

Table 1 presents the distribution of the studied academic staff’s sociodemographic characteristics and work-related data. The gender distribution shows a predominance of female gender, with the majority (85.7%) of academic staff being females. Most of the academics’ age fall into the 40 to <50-year-old category (41.1%), followed by 30- to <40-year-old category (34.8%). Furthermore, the marital status of the studied academics indicates that the majority (75.0%) of them were married. The academic title of the staff highlights that nearly equal proportions are lecturers (46.4%) or assistant professors (41.1%), and only 1.8% of academics are demonstrators. The academic experience is also diverse, with a significant portion having 10 to <20 years of experience (50.9%).

Table 1.

Distribution of the Studied Academic Staff According to Sociodemographic Characteristics and Work-Related Data (n = 112)

	No.	%
Gender
Female	96	85.7
Male	16	14.3
Age (years)
<30	18	16.1
30 to <40	39	34.8
40 to <50	46	41.1
≥50	9	8.0
Min.–Max.	24.0–60.0
Mean ± SD	38.63 ± 7.66
Marital status
Single	16	14.3
Married	84	75.0
Divorced	10	8.9
Separated	2	1.8
Academic position
Demonstrator	2	1.8
Assistant lecturer	12	10.7
Lecturer	52	46.4
Assistant professor	46	41.1
Academic experience (years)
<5	8	7.1
5 to <10	33	29.5
10 to <20	57	50.9
≥20	14	12.5
Min.–Max.	1.0–26.0
Mean ± SD	12.21 ± 5.82
Place of clinical training
Hospital settings	8	7.1
Community settings	2	1.8
Both community and hospital settings	14	12.5
Not applicable	88	78.6

SD, standard deviation.

Table 2 shows that most academic staff perceived the reality of climate change, with a mean percent score of 91.37%. Invariably, the participants were reported almost equal perceived causes (i.e., human activities) and consequences (i.e., serious negative) of climate change, with means of 83.71 (standard deviation [SD] = 25.37) and 83.82 (SD = 82.78), respectively. The overall mean percent score of the CCPs reflects a nearly similar pattern, 82.29 (SD = 26.03).

Table 2.

Distribution of the Studied Academic Staff According to Percent Score of Climate Change Perceptions Scale

CCP Scale	No.	Min.–Max.	Mean ± SD
Reality	112	0.0–100.0	91.37 ± 21.01
Causes	103	0.0–100.0	83.71 ± 25.37
Consequences	103	0.0–100.0	83.82 ± 28.78
Overall CCPs	112	0.0–100.0	82.29 ± 26.03

CCP, Climate Change Perception.

Table 3 displays an overview of the URPS Scale scores of 112 academic staff, revealing that the overall percent scores are approximately moderate with a mean of 47.02 (SD = 11.68). Specifically, the self-psychological security dimension obtained the highest score of 53.13 (SD = 10.57), followed by social security 47.32 (SD = 13.41). However, the natural environmental security dimension received the lowest mean score of 39.15 (SD = 22.37).

Table 3.

Distribution of the Studied Academic Staff According to Percent Score of Urban Residents’ Psychological Security Scale (n = 112)

URPS Scale	Min.–Max.	Mean ± SD
Self-psychological security	33.33–66.67	53.13 ± 10.57
Social security	13.89–72.22	47.32 ± 13.41
Natural environmental security	0.0–70.0	39.15 ± 22.37
Overall URPS	21.25–66.25	47.02 ± 11.68

URPS, Urban Residents’ Psychological Security.

Table 4 shows the neighborhood cohesion scores of 112 studied academic staff, indicating an overall mean score of 55.51 (SD = 22.51), reflecting a moderate level of neighborhood cohesion. About the constructs of NCI, neighboring recorded the highest mean score of 59.82 (SD = 21.85), followed by psychological sense of community and the attraction to neighborhood, with means of 54.66 (SD = 25.11) and 49.40 (SD = 25.30), respectively.

Table 4.

Distribution of the Studied Academic Staff According to Percent Score of Neighborhood Cohesion Instrument (n = 112)

NCI	Min.–Max.	Mean ± SD
Attraction-to-neighborhood	0.0–100.0	49.40 ± 25.30
Psychological sense of community	5.56–100.0	54.66 ± 25.11
Neighboring	4.17–100.0	59.82 ± 21.85
Overall NCI	4.17–100.0	55.51 ± 22.51

NCI, Neighborhood Cohesion Instrument.

Table 5 presents a correlation analysis between CCPs with URPS and NCI. A strong, statistically negative significant correlation was found between CCPs and URPS (r = −0.733, p < 0.001). Moreover, the correlations between CCPs and all basic dimensions of URPS are highly significant (p < 0.001), ranging from a strong negative correlation with the social security dimension (r = −0.703) to a moderate negative with the other two dimensions of natural environmental security (r = −0.496) and self-psychological security (r = −0.488). On the contrary, the correlation between CCPs and NCI is moderately negative (r = −0.459), with highly statistically significant p < 0.001. Similarly, the correlations between CCPs and psychological sense of community and the attraction-to-neighborhood dimensions of NCI are moderately negative (r = −0.453 and r = −0.453), respectively. Although the correlation between CCPs and NCI is weakly negative (r = −0.387), all are highly significant (p < 0.001).

Table 5.

Correlation Between CCPS with URPS and NCI

	Reality	Causes	Consequences	Overall CCPs	Self-Psychological Security	Social Security	Natural Environmental Security	Overall URPS	Attraction-to-Neighborhood	Psychological Sense of Community	Neighboring
Reality
r
p
Causes
r	0.300^*
p	0.002^*
Consequences
r	0.453^*	0.801^*
p	<0.001^*	<0.001^*
Overall CCPs
r	0.747^*	0.934^*	0.958^*
p	<0.001^*	<0.001^*	<0.001^*
Self-psychological security
r	−0.331^*	−0.376^*	−0.464^*	−0.488^*
p	<0.001^*	<0.001^*	<0.001^*	<0.001^*
Social security
r	−0.521^*	−0.615^*	−0.549^*	−0.703^*	0.464^*
p	<0.001^*	<0.001^*	<0.001^*	<0.001^*	<0.001^*
Natural environmental security
r	−0.323^*	−0.395^*	−0.483^*	−0.496^*	0.289^*	0.454^*
p	0.001^*	<0.001^*	<0.001^*	<0.001^*	0.002^*	<0.001^*
Overall URPS
r	−0.514^*	−0.622^*	−0.658^*	−0.733^*	0.650^*	0.860^*	0.792^*
p	<0.001^*	<0.001^*	<0.001^*	<0.001^*	<0.001^*	<0.001^*	<0.001^*
Attraction-to-neighborhood
r	−0.433^*	−0.247^*	−0.141	−0.433^*	0.191^*	0.547^*	0.414^*	0.533^*
p	<0.001^*	0.012^*	0.155	<0.001^*	0.044^*	<0.001^*	<0.001^*	<0.001^*
Psychological sense of community
r	−0.423^*	−0.300^*	−0.189	−0.453^*	0.154	0.512^*	0.418^*	0.507^*	0.834^*
p	<0.001^*	0.002^*	0.056	<0.001^*	0.106	<0.001^*	<0.001^*	<0.001^*	<0.001^*
Neighboring
r	−0.349^*	−0.224^*	−0.200^*	−0.387^*	0.112	0.452^*	0.444^*	0.477^*	0.677^*	0.810^*
p	<0.001^*	0.023^*	0.043^*	<0.001^*	0.241	<0.001^*	<0.001^*	<0.001^*	<0.001^*	<0.001^*
Overall NCI
r	−0.430^*	−0.288^*	−0.199^*	−0.459^*	0.157	0.535^*	0.455^*	0.537^*	0.872^*	0.976^*	0.902^*
p	<0.001^*	0.003^*	0.044^*	<0.001^*	0.097	<0.001^*	<0.001^*	<0.001^*	<0.001^*	<0.001^*	<0.001^*

r: Pearson coefficient correlation.

Statistically significant at p ≤ 0.05.

Table 6 portrays the linear regression analysis for factors affecting URPS, revealing an unstandardized coefficient (B) of −0.156 for the consequences dimension of CCPs, indicating that for each unit increase in the perception of negative consequences of climate change, the URPS score decreases by 0.156. The standardized coefficient (beta) was −0.409 (p = 0.005), suggesting a statistically significant negative relationship between the consequences dimension and URPS. On the contrary, the unstandardized coefficient (B) for the attraction-to-neighborhood dimension of NCI was 0.133, indicating that for each unit increase in attraction-to-neighborhood, the URPS score increased by 0.133 and the standardized coefficient (beta) was 0.279 (p = 0.014), suggesting a statistically significant positive relationship between attraction to neighborhood and URPS. Moreover, the unstandardized coefficient (B) was −3.144 for academic experience, indicating that for each year increase in work, the URPS score decreases by 3.144.

Table 6.

Linear Regression Analysis for Factors Affecting Urban Residents Psychological Security Scale (n = 112)

Variable	B	Beta	t	p	95% CI
Variable	B	Beta	t	p	LL	UL
Reality	−1.869	−0.252	−0.706	0.482	−7.132	3.393
Causes	0.016	0.036	0.116	0.908	−0.252	0.283
Consequences	−0.156	−0.409	−2.887^*	0.005^*	−0.263	−0.049
Attraction-to-neighborhood	0.133	0.279	2.501^*	0.014^*	0.027	0.238
Psychological sense of community	−0.055	−0.116	−0.805	0.423	−0.189	0.080
Neighboring	0.085	0.163	1.422	0.159	−0.034	0.204
Gender	−1.155	−0.038	−0.540	0.591	−5.404	3.094
Age (years)	2.348	0.184	1.565	0.121	−0.632	5.328
Academic experience (years)	−3.144	−0.225	−2.303^*	0.024^*	−5.856	−0.432
Academic title	1.628	0.110	0.924	0.358	−1.873	5.128

R² = 0.619, adjusted R²= 0.577.

R²: Coefficient of determination.

B: Unstandardized coefficients.

Beta: Standardized coefficients.

t: t-test of significance.

F = 14.930; p < 0.001.

F,p: f and p values for the model.

Statistically significant at p ≤ 0.05.

CI, confidence interval; LL, lower limit; UL, upper limit.

This model was also statistically significant (p < 0.001), explaining 57.7% of the variance in URPS scores (adjusted R² = 0.577). These results suggest that the consequences dimension of CCP, the attraction-to-neighborhood dimension of NCI, as well as academic experience significantly affect URPS scores, with higher levels of consequences perception, lower levels of attraction-to-neighborhood, and more years of experience associated with lower URPS scores among academic staff.

Discussion

Although the physical impacts of changing climatic conditions have been widely recorded, the relationship between climate change and the spectrum of the psychosocial profile has not received equal consideration in the literature. Therefore, this descriptive correlational study seeks to provide a preliminary and contextually sensitive picture of the relationship between climate change perception, a sense of psychological security, and a social cohesion profile among academic staff in the Maldives.

The existing findings indicate a high proportion of academicians holding a strong perception of reality regarding climate change. They assert that climate change is primarily human induced and express concerns about its associated consequences. These findings align with a study conducted in Colombia, which concluded that all staff members within the national academic community were notably aware of extreme climate events (Espinosa et al., 2023). Van Baal et al. (2023) also found that 85% of the German population acknowledged that climate change is the result of human activity and 83% believed that climate-related disasters have wide-ranging negative impacts on human health. Nevertheless, in contrast to these findings, Mbah (2024) reported in his qualitative study that academics at a local university in Cameroon who are from a variety of disciplines such as environmental science, forestry, plant Protection, agricultural economics, education, and water resource management. These discrepancies may indicate that the academic staff typically have access to information on climate change through various media platforms such as books, scientific reports, newspapers, magazines, and the internet (Filho et al., 2019).

Earlier studies have underscored that climate change and global warming, over a decade ago, posed real threats to individuals’ sense of psychological security, inducing feelings of uncertainty or perplexity about potential future risks (Doherty & Clayton, 2011; Weber & Stern, 2011). Environmental philosopher Glenn Albrecht and colleagues (2007) addressed individuals’ associations of psychological security states with ecological conditions among a segment of Australians. They found that awareness of this significant human issue was a contributing factor to the development of “psychoterratic syndromes,” such as psychological distress, anxiety, and feelings of freezing or paralysis related to natural disasters (Albrecht et al., 2007). Recent literature suggests that long-term negative emotions can easily lead to feelings of unhappiness and vigilance, which can be detrimental to an individual’s sense of psychological security (Khudaykulov et al., 2022; Yang et al., 2020; Wang et al., 2019). Consistent with these findings, our study revealed a statistically significant negative relationship between climate change perception in terms of reality and consequences dimensions and URPS through linear regression analysis. It appears reasonable that, given the geographical nature of the Maldives, the high-risk perception related to sea level rise brought by climate change threatens respondents’ sense of psychological security, eliciting eco-anxiety or worry about future risks (Wang et al., 2019). Sekulova and Van den Bergh (2016) highlighted that the gradual consequences driven by climate change not only cause significant material losses but also gravely undermine individuals’ psychological well-being, inciting despair and hopelessness.

As per the data obtained, most of the respondents recorded a moderate level of social attachment to the home they lived in. Contrarily, findings from the International Organization for Migration (IOM) conducted on 360 households in distinct geographic regions in the Maldives. The study revealed that although they acknowledged that climate change would adversely influence their livelihoods, none of them opined that this factor would cause their migration (IOM, 2017). In one of the qualitative studies conducted by Mortreux et al. (2009) who examined the lived experiences of people living in one of the main islands in Tuvalu, Funafuti, and Maldives. The study found that Maldivians reported they are “strongly tied to their lands and express a desire to remain for reasons of cultural bond, identity, and lifestyle.” An updated finding from Kelman et al.’s (2019) study on climate change and migration also found that climate change does not encourage people to migrate. These findings can be justified in light of the Theory of Planned Behavior (Ajzen, 1991), which posits that humans generally behave in a rational manner and use available information to decide whether to perform a specific action. In the contemporary migration process in the Maldives, Speelman et al. (2016) undertook that Maldivians’ intention to take decisions related to migration is influenced by three main factors namely, Instrumental Attitude, which assesses the perceived costs and benefits associated with migration; Affective Attitude, which encompasses personal feelings and opinions toward the behavior; and Environmental Attitude such as environmental degradation or the perceived threat of climate change to their area of residence. The scholars also concluded that Maldivians base their intention to migrate on perceptions of the costs and benefits associated with migration, affective attitude to migration, social pressure, and perceived behavioral control. Therefore, they suggested that perceiving coastal societies solely including Maldives as victims in the climate change debate overlooks the various drivers and trends that have historically influenced island societies and will continue to do so. Opposite outcomes were documented from empirical evidence amplified by climate change. For example, in Somalia, the current environmental degradation exacerbates vulnerabilities and contributes to displacement from their homes (Thalheimer et al., 2023). In Iraq, extreme weather events driven by climate change, such as rising temperatures, water scarcity, droughts, and dust storms, are negatively affecting Iraq’s population livelihoods and intensifying intercommunal tensions (United Nations, 2023).

Our hypothesis regarding the negative correlation between perceptions of climate change and psychological security, as well as the perceived sense of social cohesion among academic staff, was supported by our findings. Although these findings are limited to this snapshot, they provide support for the ongoing proactive strategies undertaken by the Maldives, which are directly aligned with regional sustainable development goals (SDG, 2022). It is well established that the Maldivian government continuously strives to formulate public policies to withstand ecological crises and build a more resilient community. In this regard, the government has made concerted efforts to build partnerships with regional and global partners to put the Maldives on a pathway toward equitable climate resilience and ecological sustainability (Moncada et al., 2021). The country has also actively participated in the European Strategy and Policy Analysis System (ESPAS) research project and Global Trends 2030, to address the adverse impacts of climate change over the next decade. One of the key challenges in the ESPAS project is empowering a sense of belonging and social cohesion among the Maldivian people. Belonging is considered a fundamental human need that shapes mental health and well-being (Kelly-Ann, 2021). Even the American psychologist Abraham Maslow prioritized “belongingness,” or being part of a group, over physiological needs such as food and safety (Maslow et al., 1945). From a security perspective, a sense of social cohesion and belongingness stems from the inhabitants’ desire for psychological security (Obradovich et al., 2018). This fact may explain our study findings regarding the increase in psychological security and sense of social cohesion scores with the extent of CCPs. However, we believe that while this pilot study provides important insights, further research is needed to delve deeper into the discussion about how public policy and development interventions address the aftermath of climate change on psychological security and social cohesion. This will help mitigate the ravages of nature for the continued existence and viability of the nation, preserving the prosperity and sovereignty of the Maldives.

Moreover, the Maldives are spearheading efforts to protect the planet against impending ecological risks. Environmental advocate Maeed Zahir emphasized that by empowering the public to participate in climate initiatives, their capacity to address these looming risks will be enhanced (Buechner, 2023). Encouraging a sense of empowerment and accountability would strengthen their commitment to becoming agents of change through their voices, purchasing power, and political support (Maldives, 2023). This paves the way for harnessing the power of convergence and coherence among Maldivian citizens to implement climate action in their local communities. As they take on the responsibility for the sustainable social development of their country, which greatly values psychological stability and social cohesion, it ensures that future generations of Maldivians will have the opportunity to enjoy the national prosperity of their country. However, interpretative caution is warranted, as this study did not assess the extent of Maldivians’ participation in climate change mitigation measures. Therefore, it does not fully capture the extent of their social engagement in climate resilience. Consequently, this finding serves as a catalyst for future research to evaluate the extent of Maldivians’ involvement in environmental sustainability and climate change literacy.

Conclusion

The existing findings provide targeted climate change messages on how the perception of climate change influences psychological security and social cohesion. This can empower Maldivian academic staff to provide appropriate mental health support and foster social cohesion within the academic community. In this case, the academicians can raise public awareness and adopt emergency preparedness strategies tailored to ecological issues. Through educational programs and community outreach, academicians can help build a sense of community and mutual support. Furthermore, the findings can provide policymakers with valuable insights to prioritize climate adaptation strategies on their agenda and advocate for climate-related issues that address environmental sustainability and ensure resilient health systems.

The current study concludes that the participants demonstrated a high overall percentage score for climate change perception, as well as moderate overall mean scores for psychological security and social cohesion. These preliminary findings have broader implications, calling for the Maldives College of Higher Education to implement environmental and disaster education and training opportunities aimed at creating sustainable, climate-resilient health systems.

Footnotes

Acknowledgment

The researchers are grateful to all academicians who participated in this study and special thanks for Mr. Muslet Mohammed ALHARBI the Agricultural researcher and consultant for his guidance and kind support.

Authors’ Contributions

R.S.E., F.N., M.A.E.-S.M., and N.I. made the initial plan for the study, conceptualization, writing methodology, data collection, writing the original draft. R.S.E., F.N., L.M.K., & A.A.Z.B.S. contributed in supervision all over the research process including; the initial plan for the study, conceptualization, methodology, writing the original draft, review, data analysis and interpretation & editing of the final draft. All authors contributed to and approved the final manuscript.

Availability of Data and Materials

The datasets used and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

Author Disclosure Statement

No conflict of interest has been declared by the authors.

Funding Information

No funding was received for this article.

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