Abstract
Over the past decade, outer space exploration and exploitation have occupied increasing media attention. Much of this attention has focused on commercial space entities. The book, published by Routledge in 2018, provides an overview of the space business from its birth to its impending future. It includes discussion of several dynamics that have the potential to influence the direction of space commerce. Academics and policy-makers are the intended audience, but general readers, undergraduate students, or business persons requiring a jargon-free introduction to the space business, would equally benefit.
The preface by Steven Gonzãlez, a technology strategist from the NASA Johnson Space Center, highlights the opportunities the space business provides for the creation of new industries. Chapters 1 and 2 outline the history of the space sector and the ways in which it has aided, and been aided, by globalization. The strength of the book lies in Chapters 3 and 4 which analyze both the upstream and downstream segments of the industry. The downstream segment may be explained as “the products or services that are produced or provided by the space sector” (p.60). Examples include navigation services and satellite Earth observation. The upstream sector “comprises the manufacturers of space hardware and the suppliers of launch services” (p.43) and as well as research and development. These chapters demonstrate solid technical understanding and expert knowledge of issues affecting space commerce. The American space program is discussed in Chapter 5 and the space efforts of long-standing competitors and countries with an emerging presence in the industry are examined in Chapter 6. Chapter 7 presents three alternative models of the future world and attempts to assess their impact on the space sector. Each model is located at a different point on a spectrum ranging from ideal to worst-case scenario. Finally, Chapter 8, the epilogue, is a recapitulation of the earlier chapters.
The authors concisely trace the paradigm shift from a state-based space sector to one that has been substantially infiltrated by private actors. Similarly, they identify the parallel shift from the use of space primarily for scientific and military purposes to increasing commercial and civil applications. The authors note that the commercialization of space is not being undertaken only by companies. State agencies are maximizing the benefits of commercial space activities, not solely as purchasers or clients but also as providers. They use Antrix, the commercial division of the Indian Department of Space, as an example. Sales of its satellite images and data have increased and plans to provide heavy satellite launches will complement its increasing market share of small satellite launches.
The authors clearly and succinctly explain the advantages and disadvantages of certain technological advancements, such as electronic propulsion and in-orbit servicing, and the potential effect they will have on the industry. The book provides sufficient statistics to enable readers to gain a broad understanding of the financial dynamics of the space industry.
It should be noted that the authors differentiate the space sector, “(e.g., rockets and launchers)” (p.37), from the space economy that is bigger and includes “…services and product providers (e.g., geographic information systems developers, navigation equipment sellers)” (p.37). The authors indicate that when they refer to the “space industry” they are “in fact referring to the overall economic activities in relation to space” (p.37). They outline various current and potential space services, acknowledging that some companies, such as XCOR and Bigelow Aerospace, have abandoned their plans to provide spaceflight services. Nevertheless, the authors predict that commercial space travel will “render traditional aviation obsolete” (p.173) and support this contention with a discussion of the cost and increasing shortage of fuel as well as the drastic reduction in travel time.
The strategic military employment of space products and services, particularly the dual-use nature of some technologies, is one of the concerns arising out of the space sector. The authors say that Iran, due in part to increasing American presence in the region, “feels threatened and partly seeks to exploit space to safeguard its own national security” (p.138). Furthermore, they suggest that countries such as “China, North Korea, and Pakistan use a civil space programme clandestinely to manufacture longer-range missiles to further safeguard national security” (p.138).
The book may be compared with James Clay Moltz's, Crowded Orbits: Conflict and Cooperation in Space (Columbia University Press, 2014), in that they both examine aspects such as the militarization and politicization of space. Divergence may be found in their objectives. The aim of Crowded Orbits is to emphasize the need for conflict avoidance in the light of increased space activity, whereas the purpose of Above and Beyond is to explore the commercialization of the space industry and demonstrate its reciprocal relationship with globalization. Through discussion of geopolitics and national security as well as new manufacturing processes and the increased need for data management systems, the book achieves its objective.
However, the authors neglected to include several key issues. Middle East space ventures are highlighted by reference to Iran, Israel, and Saudi Arabia. Surprisingly, however, there is no discussion of the recent astronomical growth of space projects in the UAE. There is also no mention of the African space industry. This is not an inconsequential omission for at least three reasons. First, the space budgets of several African nations, portions of which are for commercial purposes, are not paltry. Second, its emerging space market, according to Euroconsult, is valued at $400 billion U.S. dollars. Third, the steady advancement of space science and technology in countries such as Algeria, Egypt, Ghana, Nigeria, and South Africa.
A more thorough discussion as to how space law—both international and national—has impacted and is likely to impact the industry would have been useful. Although the “significant constraints imposed by legislation and regulation…” (p.92) are highlighted, the reader is left wondering what these constraints might be. In addition, while there was mention of increased health and safety regulations and environmental protection laws, the authors’ views as to whether specific instruments, such as the Outer Space Treaty 1967, are conducive to economic growth or whether new international space laws are needed to propel the industry would have been welcomed. Despite the existence of the UN Space Treaties and other space-related multi-lateral instruments as well as more than 25 domestic space statutes, the authors state: “As we can see there is little or no legislation governing space” (p.180). This is an inaccurate statement and should be amended in any future editions. So too should the parts of the book that are repeated verbatim (p.1&7, p.39&41, p.42&43). Finally, given multi-million dollar investments, the financial protection of satellites before and during launch and while in orbit is vital for many space businesses. Yet, the topic of space insurance was overlooked.
Despite these criticisms, Above and Beyond: Exploring the Business of Space is a timely and a useful addition to the field of space commerce. The book provides key facts and figures that will lead readers to the realization that the space industry is already bigger than they may have thought and has the potential to advance well beyond our current imagination.