Abstract
Abstract
Sexual assault or coercion is a pervasive problem on college campuses. The confluence model of sexual aggression identifies two pathways that can independently or synergistically predict sexual coercion. One pathway in the model is between sexual aggression and hostile masculinity or hypermasculinity, which is defined as an exaggerated adherence to traditional male gender role beliefs. Prior research has noted witnessing or experiencing abuse as a child and associating with delinquent peers creates an environment that teaches men to treat women as objects. However, most research has focused on one type of victimization, primarily childhood sexual abuse in isolation, rather than the effects of cumulative victimization (or polyvictimization) in understanding the broad effects of victimization. The objective of this study was to examine the influence of polyvictimization on the confluence model for sexual aggression in a college male sample. It is hypothesized that more hypermasculine attitudes among college males would mediate the relationship between childhood polyvictimization and sexual coercive behaviors. Participants were 99 undergraduate male students from a large Southeastern University. The bootstrapping analysis revealed that hypermasculinity mediated the relationship between polyvictimization and coercive sexual behavior. The results reveal an additional tertiary factor to consider in the expansion of the confluence model for sexual aggression. Furthermore, the results have important policy implications for universities.
Introduction
T
The cumulative effects of interpersonal victimization during childhood, commonly referred to as polyvictimization, have been predictive of a number of long-term consequences, including psychological symptomatology and psychological distress (Debowska et al. 2017; Turner et al. 2017). Malamuth and colleagues (1993) noted that witnessing or experiencing abuse as a child and associating with delinquent peers creates an environment that teaches men to treat women as objects. Furthermore, among boys, witnessing familial violence has a strong association with attitudes toward domestic violence and social norms regarding physical violence against girls (Debowska et al. 2017). Most research has focused on one type of victimization, primarily childhood sexual abuse in isolation, rather than the effects of cumulative victimization in understanding the broad effects of victimization. Therefore, it is important for researchers to examine polyvictimization as a measure of childhood adversity in the confluence model of sexual aggression.
The objective of this study was to examine the confluence model for sexual aggression in a sample of college males. Based on the extant literature on sexual aggression and coercion, this study hypothesized that childhood polyvictimization would predict sexually coercive behaviors. Second, based on confluence model of sexual aggression, this study examined the influence of hypermasculinity on sexual coercion. It is hypothesized that more hypermasculine attitudes among college males would mediate the relationship between childhood polyvictimization and sexual coercive behaviors.
Materials and Methods
Participants
Participants were 99 male undergraduate students from a large Southeastern University who were recruited through the university's study pool and were awarded course credit for their participation. Data were collected as a part of a larger study examining early childhood experiences, personality characteristics, victimization, and substance use in an undergraduate sample. All study procedures were approved by the university's institutional review board. The average participant was 20 years old (SD = 2.71). The majority identified as Christian (73%), heterosexual/straight (93%), and white/European American (87%), the remainder of the sample identified as black/African American (5%), Hispanic/Latino (2%), Asian/Pacific Islander (3%), and other racial/ethnic groups (3%). Over half of the sample (59%) reported they were single and 39% reported being in a romantic relationship.
Measures
Polyvictimization
Childhood victimization was assessed using the Juvenile Victimization Questionnaire—Adult Retrospective Version (JVQ-R2) (Hamby et al. 2004). The JVQ-R2 obtains reports on 34 forms of youth victimization covering six general areas: conventional crime, child maltreatment, peer and sibling victimization, sexual victimization, witnessing or indirect victimization, and physical victimization. The JVQ-R2 produces six aggregate scores, as well as a total score. The total score was used as a measure of polyvictimization. The JVQ-R2 has displayed acceptable internal validity (α = 0.80) and test–retest reliability (α = 0.95) (Finkelhor et al. 2005).
Sexual coercion
The Coercive Sexuality Scale (Rapaport and Burkhart 1984) was developed to define a continuum of coercive sexual encounters. The measure distinguishes between males who directly coerced sexual behavior and males whose methods of coercion were more indirect or who used noncoercive verbal strategies. The first part of the scale presents 11 coercive sexual behaviors to which the subject indicates the frequency of his involvement on a 4-point scale of never, once or twice, several times, or often. The items range from holding a woman's hand against her wishes to having intercourse against a woman's wishes. The next eight items were written to measure the method by which sexual behavior was coerced. These were rated on the same 4-point frequency scale, and included items ranging from noncoercive verbal persuasion, through ignoring a woman's protests, to using a weapon to coerce sexual contact.
Hypermasculinity
The Auburn Differential Masculinity Inventory (ADMI) (Burk et al. 2004) was used to measure hypermasculine attitudes. The ADMI measures five domains of masculinity: hypermasculine attitudes, sexual identity, dominance and aggression, conservative masculinity, and devaluation of emotion. Through 60 Likert scale items (strongly agree to strongly disagree), a total score and five subscale scores can be obtained. The total score was used in this study as an overall measure of hypermasculine attitudes and attitudes associated with hypermasculine identification. The ADMI has demonstrated adequate internal reliability (α = 0.83) and convergent validity (r = 0.70) (Burk et al. 2004).
Data analytic plan
To test for mediation, a bootstrapping analysis was run using the SPSS PROCESS macro (Hayes 2013). A few alternatives have been proposed, but simulation research has found bootstrapping to be among the most powerful methods of detecting mediation (Hayes 2013). The process of bootstrapping creates a large sample from the original data (1000 for this study) through a sampling with replacement strategy. A confidence interval (CI) is constructed (95% in this study) around the indirect effect, and the interval must not contain a zero to assume a significant indirect effect.
Results
The bootstrapping analysis found a significant indirect effect of polyvictimization on sexual coercion through hypermasculinity b = 0.06, CI (0.01–0.15). The mediator accounted for roughly 24% of the total effect. This finding supports the hypothesis that hypermasculinity mediates the relationship between childhood polyvictimization and sexual coercion in the confluence model for sexual aggression.
Discussion
This study tested the confluence model through a mediational analysis of childhood polyvictimization and sexual coercion. This indicates the effect of childhood maltreatment on engaging in coercive sexual behavior is dependent on the hypermasculine attitudes. Prior research has suggested examining tertiary factors (i.e., personality and situational) that expand upon the traditional confluence model (Parkhill and Abbey 2008). Results from this study have important policy implications for universities. With growing literature suggesting substantial number of college students being victimized worldwide (Aizpurua et al. 2018), evaluating primary prevention strategies and the effectiveness of current intervention programs is critical. For instance, universities might benefit from implementing prevention approaches that explicitly incorporate principles that promote respect and safety for women. Interventions addressing hypermasculine beliefs in college males, particularly those involved in social groups that might promote such beliefs (i.e., fraternities and athletics), need to be integrated into current models of sexual violence prevention. Furthermore, teaching affirmative consent and how to establish and maintain healthy relationships and boundaries may also mitigate the likelihood of engaging in sexual coercive behaviors.
Conclusion
This study addresses an important need to evaluate polyvictimization in research on long-term consequences of childhood victimization on sexual coercion in college men. The results highlight the need for trauma-informed campuses and necessity for trauma-based treatment for college men, as another venue for reducing sexual violence on campus. This comprehensive approach provides understanding of the cumulative effect of childhood maltreatment on sexual coercion. Future directions include incorporating tertiary factors (i.e., substance abuse history, attachment, and rape myth acceptance) into the current confluence model. Furthermore, developing intervention approaches that promote affirmative consent and positive attitudes toward relationships and boundaries is also needed in the sexual violence prevention programs on college campuses.
Footnotes
Author Disclosure Statement
No competing financial interests exist.