Factors Associated with Firearm-Related Risk Reduction Strategies Among Men and Women Handgun Owners: A New Direction to Increase Public Safety

Abstract

The U.S. has the highest number of guns in the hands of civilians in the world, increasing the need for strategies that reduce firearm-related accidents and violence. Understanding experiences and behaviors of current handgun owners and how they may differ by gender could be used to target interventions to reduce firearm-related risks. This study describes differences between men (n = 184) and women (n = 243) handgun owners on fear for personal safety, victimization experiences, and firearm-related experiences, worries, and risk reduction strategies. Participants were recruited via Prolific to complete a 20-min survey. Results indicate that more women handgun owners had interpersonal victimization experiences, were more concerned about their personal safety, and had less confidence in their firearm handling skills than men. Risk reduction strategies were positively related with having someone who taught them about using a firearm, past year shooting practice, higher safety efficacy, carrying a firearm, and lower firearm-related worries. Only 20% of men and women worried about children accessing their firearm and a smaller proportion worried about accidently shooting another person. Targeting gun owners with the importance of firearm-related risk reduction strategies as well as increasing information about personal safety strategies that do not involve handguns may help prevent injuries.

Overall, about twenty to thirty percent of American adults say that they currently own a firearm (Azrael et al. 2017; Parker et al. 2017; Smith and Son 2019). The majority of people who own a firearm, particularly a handgun, indicate that they have it for self-defense purposes regardless of gender (Azrael et al. 2017; Parker et al. 2017). There has been a rise in gun sales during the COVID-19 pandemic and, amid public protests related to racial inequity and police reform, with about 40% of the pandemic gun sales to first time gun owners (Lyons et al. 2020).¹ Consistent with prior literature, these sales are largely driven by worry about violence for themselves and others (Kravitz-Wirtz et al. 2020).

More firearms may mean more accidental shootings, suicides, and homicides as studies suggest that states with higher rates of firearm ownership have higher rates of domestic firearm mortality (Kivisto et al. 2019). Firearm restriction and confiscation policies have been shown to reduce firearm-related deaths and injuries in some studies (Gollub and Gardner 2019; Lee et al. 2017; Sivaraman et al. 2019). However, even at full enforcement of gun confiscation and restriction legislation, the number of guns in the U.S. would still be high (Azrael et al. 2017; Parker et al. 2017; Siegel et al. 2014; Smith and Son 2019). Especially given there are a number of legislative efforts to get guns in even more homes (Bouffard et al. 2012; Zeoli and Bonomi 2015). According to the Small Arms Survey, the U.S. has the highest number of civilian held firearms of the 230 countries included in the report and comprises nearly 50% of global civilian held firearms (Karp 2018). Thus, multiple strategies are needed to reduce firearm-related risks among current gun owners.

Gun owners can engage in a variety of precautions that may reduce risks. Firearm-related risk reduction strategies include safe firearm storage and competence in handling a firearm (Hemenway et al. 2019). Firearm storage practices have received the most attention in the research to date. In general, about one-third of gun owners say all the guns in their homes are locked up and about 44% say their guns are stored unloaded (Azrael et al. 2018; Parker et al. 2017). On the contrary, 20–40% of gun owners keep at least one firearm loaded and unlocked (Azrael et al. 2018; Morgan et al. 2018; Parker et al. 2017). Firearm storage is an important consideration because unauthorized users and children could access the weapon which could increase injuries. Further, safe firearm storage is recommended as one of several suicide prevention strategies (Anestis et al. 2020). However, little is known about firearm-related risk reduction strategies, beyond gun storage, that gun owners do or do not practice.

In addition, decreased firearm handling competence may contribute to firearm risks. For example, keeping the firearm in good working condition by regularly cleaning the gun, being able and confident to effectively clear jams, and being confident in skills may be important factors in reducing risks of firearms (Barnhart et al. 2017; Blair and Hyatt 1995). Among the limited research, some studies suggest that education, training, and practice help increase skills when facing a threat, but reduces the likelihood of accidents (Barnhart et al. 2017; O'Neill et al. 2019; Vince et al. 2015). There is still much to be learned about gun ownership in general and specifically how gun owners feel about their skills and abilities in handling the gun, in part, due to the limited firearms research (Alcorn 2017; Price and Payton 2016; Rubin 2016).

Firearm risk reduction strategies may vary by the characteristics of gun owners. Gender, for example, has been one factor that has received specific focus as firearms are often marketed to women as a self-defense strategy (Blair and Hyatt 1995; Jordan et al. 2020; Koeppel and Nobles 2015; Zeoli and Bonomi 2015). Although the research on gun ownership and gender is limited, research shows that men are more likely to be gun owners, and they own a greater number of guns than women, while women are more likely than men to say that protection is the only reason they own a gun (Hamilton et al. 2018; Parker et al. 2017; Wintemute 2011; Wolfson et al. 2020). The scant research is mixed regarding safe gun storage, with some studies finding that men, compared to women, are more likely to store a gun loaded and unlocked (Parker et al. 2017), while other studies suggest that women are more likely to store a gun loaded and unlocked (Azrael et al. 2018). Other research finds no difference by gender in gun storage (Wolfson et al. 2020).

Other factors may impact firearm risk reduction strategies as well such as an individual's level of concern for personal safety, past victimization experiences, experience with guns, and firearm-related worries. A significant number of individuals worry about their personal safety as one study found that one-third of adults experience stress because of personal safety concerns (American Psychological Association 2017). However, research has found that women worry about their personal safety and feel more vulnerable to interpersonal violence compared to men (Harris and Miller 2000; Logan and Walker 2017; May et al., 2010; Riggs and Cook 2014). Many gun owners say that they have guns for self-protection although research has been mixed on whether their fear or concern for safety is higher, similar to, or lower than non-gun owners (Dowd-Arrow et al. 2019; Kleck et al. 2011; Pierre 2019; Warner and Thrash 2020). Another key factor in concern for safety is an individual's perceived capability to deter, stop, or cope with a threatening situation or their level of safety efficacy (Bandura 1986; Hale 1996; Jackson 2009, 2011; Killias and Clerici 2000; Rader 2008; Riggs and Cook 2014). Having a lower sense of safety efficacy is related to increased personal safety concerns (Houts and Kassab 1997; Shippee 2012; Tulloch 2003). Further, research suggests that gun owners have higher safety efficacy than non-gun owners, but that there are gender differences in safety efficacy regardless of gun ownership (Logan 2020a, 2020b; Logan and Walker 2017). It is possible that if people do not feel capable of protecting themselves from a personal safety threat, they may be more likely to obtain and to rely on a gun and keeping that gun ready to shoot, which could impact unsafe storage habits.

Prior victimization has also been associated with increased worry about personal safety (Fox et al. 2009; Hale 1996; Jackson and Gouseti 2016; Russo et al. 2013). Women are more likely to experience interpersonal victimization such as sexual assault, partner abuse, and stalking than men (Black et al. 2011; Harris and Miller 2000; Logan and Walker 2017; May et al. 2010; Riggs and Cook 2014). Several studies have linked prior victimization experiences with carrying a firearm (Turner et al., 2016; Wallace 2017) and firearm carry is also more common for males than for females (Kleck and Gertz 1998). However, it is unclear if male and female gun owners will differ in their history of victimization, perceived vulnerability to victimization or safety efficacy, and whether these factors might impact firearm risk reduction strategies.

In addition, it is important to consider one's experience with guns when looking to increase safe practices involving guns. Specifically, experience with guns such as having somebody teach gun safety and shooting skills, growing up with guns, and longevity of gun ownership may also influence firearm-related risk reduction strategies (Parker et al. 2017). Relatedly, practice with a gun is associated with increased gun safety behaviors (Barnhart et al. 2017; O'Neill et al. 2019; Vince et al. 2015). Finally, gun-related worries such as worrying about an accidental shooting or worrying that children might access the gun or that someone would take the gun away and use it against them may be associated with firearm-related risk reduction strategies. Although few studies have examined gun-related worries, one study found that gun owners worry less than non-gun owners about experiencing firearm violence although gender differences in that study were not explored (Schleimer et al. 2020).

Even at full enforcement of gun confiscation and restriction legislation, the U.S. has the highest number of guns in the hands of civilians in the world (Karp 2018). Therefore, the need for strategies that target safe firearm handling should be a priority when looking to increase public safety. This study is one of the firsts to compare firearm-related risk reduction strategies as well as factors that may be associated with firearm-related risk reduction strategies across gender. Within this context, this study has three main objectives: (1) examine gender differences on perceived vulnerability to victimization, safety efficacy, victimization experience, experience with guns, and reasons for gun ownership among handgun owners; (2) describe bivariate differences between men and women handgun owners for firearm-related worries and risk reduction strategies; and, (3) explore factors associated with two measures of firearm-related risk reduction strategies (risk reduction strategies and gun skills competence), including perceived vulnerability to victimization, safety efficacy, interpersonal victimization, firearm-related experiences, and firearm-related worries separately for men and for women handgun owners.

Method

Sample

Sampling procedure

The final sample of 184 men and 243women handgun owners was recruited from Prolific, an online data collection platform that connects researchers with participants who are paid cash for volunteering to participate in online research (Palan and Schitter 2018; Peer et al. 2017). Online recruitment has been shown to be more demographically diverse than traditional student samples, and, at the same time, participants are more attentive (Hauser and Schwarz 2016). To ensure high-quality data from this online sample, participants must have successfully completed multiple attention checks embedded in the survey (including extensive screening of open-ended data) to have been included. In addition, participants were only offered the opportunity to participate once.

All procedures were approved by the first author's University Institutional Review Board. The data for this study were collected in two phases. In Phase 1, 956 men and 1303 women completed a survey. Of those, 17.4% of men (n = 166) and 11.7% of women (n = 153) indicated that they owned guns. In Phase 2, a screener was done with 825 men and 2839 women. Of those, 131 men and 152 women gun owners were invited to participate with an overall response rate of 87.3%. After removing incomplete data and those who did not pass validity checks, there was total sample of 1029 men and 1486 women with 257 men and 289 women who indicated that they owned guns. Respondents were paid $3.50 for completing a survey that took about 20 min. A small proportion were removed from the sample for this article, including 5.4% (n = 56) of men and 2.6% (n = 39) of women who reported that they did not own handguns and 8.5% (n = 17) of men and 2.8% (n = 7) of women who indicated they carried a gun for their job, leaving a final sample of 427 handgun owners (184 men and 243 women).

Sample characteristics

Overall, the sample was 39 years old on average, mostly white (79.2%) and black (6.5%), employed (73.4%), and educated (88.6% had at least some college). About one-third of participants (35.3%) had an annual income less than $40,000, and about one third had an annual income of $80,000 or higher (32.2%). Most of the handgun owners lived in suburban areas (52.7%), about one quarter lived in rural areas (24.2%), and about one quarter lived in urban areas (23.1%). There was only one significant gender difference in that more men were working full-time (69.0%) than women (47.3%, X²(2) = 23.293, p < 0.001).

Measures

Demographic characteristics

In addition to participant gender, the following sociodemographic characteristics were assessed: age, education, employment, annual income, race/ethnicity, and the area the participant lived in currently (i.e., urban, suburban, and rural).

Gun ownership

Participants were asked if they currently own or have a gun (yes/no). If they responded that they owned a gun, they were asked what type of gun they owned with response options as check all that apply for when given a list of guns (i.e., handgun/pistol, shotgun, or rifle).

Experience with guns

Participants were asked a series of questions about their experience with guns, including (1) how long they have owned guns, with response options allowed them to input years, months, and/or days; (2) the number of guns they owned with response options: 1 = 1 gun; 2 = 2–5 guns; 3 = 6–10 guns; and 4 = 11 or more guns; (3) whether they had grown up with guns (yes/no); (4) whether they had taken lessons or had someone who taught them the correct way to shoot the gun (1 = strongly disagree, 2 = disagree, 3 = agree, and 4 = strongly agree). These items were adapted from prior research on gun ownership (Hemenway et al. 2019; Parker et al. 2017); (5) whether they had gone to the shooting range, taken shooting lessons, or practiced shooting in the past year (0 = not at all in the past year; 1 = in the past year but not the past month; 2 = occasionally in the past month; 3 = a lot in the past month). This item has been used in prior research (Logan 2020b); (6) whether they carry a firearm out in public openly or concealed gun (1 = strongly disagree, 2 = disagree, 3 = agree, and 4 = strongly agree); and (7) whether they had a conceal carry license (Yes/No).

Reasons for gun ownership

Regarding reasons for gun ownership, participants were then asked to indicate how much they agreed (1 = strongly disagree, 2 = disagree, 3 = agree, and 4 = strongly agree) with the following reasons for having a gun: (1) it makes me feel safer; (2) for protection from my (ex)partner; (3) for protection from strangers or people other than my (ex)partner; (4) make me feel more capable of protecting myself and/or my family; (5) I shoot competitively, hunt, or use guns for other sports; (6) family or traditional reasons (e.g., it was given to me/passed down); and (7) for my job. The reasons for gun ownership items were adapted from several sources (Logan and Lynch 2018; Lynch 2020; Parker et al. 2017).

Gun-related worries

Seven items developed specifically for this study asked about agreement or disagreement with gun-related worries, including (1) if they were to use their gun for protection, they would be charged with a crime or jailed; (2) about their children (or other people's children who visit) who might access the gun; (3) about intentionally shooting and/or killing someone with the gun; (4) about unintentionally shooting and/or killing someone with the gun; (5) worry that someone might take the gun from me and use it on me; (6) cannot afford to target shoot as often as I would like; and (7) not having money to take lessons or learn more about the gun. Response options ranged from 1 = strongly disagree, 2 = disagree, 3 = agree, and 4 = strongly agree and the five items were averaged for a total score ranging from 7 to 28. Reliability for the five items was 0.772.

Gun risk reduction strategies

The risk reduction strategies scale items are consistent with the content taught in firearm classes (Hemenway et al. 2019; Morgan et al. 2018). Participants indicated how much they agreed (1 = strongly disagree, 2 = disagree, 3 = agree, and 4 = strongly agree) with six risk reduction behaviors, including (1) I keep the gun unloaded while at home or store bullets in a place separate from the gun; (2) I always keep the gun loaded and ready to shoot; (3) I always check to see if the gun is loaded or unloaded before doing anything with it; (4) I never put my finger on the trigger of a loaded gun without intending to shoot; (5) I am careful about where I shoot the gun making sure nothing behind the target could be damaged; and (6) I wear eye and ear protection when target shooting. The six items were summed to yield a gun risk reduction strategies scale with scores ranging from 1 to 24 (r = 0.665).

The gun skills competence items were developed specifically for this project and included the sum of ten items with scores ranging from 10 to 40 (r = 0.871). Participants indicated how much they agreed (1 = strongly disagree, 2 = disagree, 3 = agree, and 4 = strongly agree) with the following items: (1) I feel confident using my gun to protect myself out in public; (2) I feel confident in using my gun to protect myself at home; (3) I do not use my gun or have much to do with my gun (reverse scored); (4) I do not know how to use my gun very well (reverse scored); (5) I am a bit scared to use my gun (reverse scored); (6) I am a very good shot; (7) I have a natural way with guns; (8) I clean my gun regularly after use; (9) I know what to do when, or if, my gun jams; and (10) I have educated or taught others about guns.

Perceived vulnerability to victimization

Participants were asked how likely (1-not at all likely to 5-extremely likely) they thought each of three threatening or violent situations were to happen to them in the next year. These situations included interpersonal violence (e.g., sexual assault, assault by a current or ex-partner, stalking, or repeated sexual harassment), gun violence (threats with a gun, being held at gunpoint, or experiencing a public or mass shooting) and an assault or attack or other crime (other than gun violence, sexual assault, partner assault, stalking, or sexual harassment). The three items were averaged to create a total perceived vulnerability to victimization score. These measures were adapted from prior studies (Jackson 2011; Killias 1990; Logan and Walker 2017; May et al. 2010).

Safety efficacy

The safety efficacy scale (see Logan and Walker 2017) consisted of 15 items averaged on a five-point scale (1 = strongly disagree, 5 = strongly agree). Items asked about three main areas—confidence in facing an attack (e.g., I am not confident in my ability to resist an attack), decisions about what they would do in an attack (e.g., I am good at making quick decisions about how to respond when encountering someone who makes me concerned for my safety), and skills to defend themselves from an attack (e.g., I have the verbal skills to effectively resist someone who makes me concerned for my safety). The internal reliability for the scale was 0.92.

Interpersonal victimization experience

Experiences with interpersonal victimization were assessed for ever and in the past year and included six items that asked if participants had ever been (1) “physically assaulted or attacked by someone?” (2) “Directly or indirectly threatened with a gun?” (3) “Held at gunpoint?” (4) “Frightened or concerned for your safety or the safety of others close to you because someone repeatedly followed you, repeatedly contacted you, and/or repeatedly showed up at your house or other places when you did not want them to (stalked or obsessively pursued you)?” (5) Threatened or forced to have sexual intercourse against your will? and (6) abused (degraded or controlled) by a partner that made you concerned or afraid for your safety?” The question responses were yes/no. The analysis for this article examined ever having experienced any of these victimizations. These items have been used in prior studies (e.g., Logan and Walker 2017).

Analysis plan

Chi-squares and ANOVAs were used to examine bivariate differences by gender for interpersonal victimization experience, safety efficacy, perceived vulnerability to victimization, firearm-related experience, reasons for gun ownership, firearm-related worries, and firearm-related risk reduction strategies. Linear regressions were used to examine factors associated with (1) firearm-related risk reduction strategies and (2) skills competence separately by gender. Age and income were included as control variable in these multivariate analyses, as they be associated with gun ownership and practices (Parker et al. 2017). Further, both age and lower income have also been associated with an increased risk of gun-related injury (Everytown for Gun Safety 2019b). Independent variables for both regressions included age, income, perceived vulnerability to violence, safety efficacy, interpersonal victimization experience, average years owned guns, whether participants had grown up around guns, whether participants were shown how to properly use the gun, past year shooting practice, whether they carried their gun out in public, and gun-related worries. Independent variables were examined for multicollinearity and the tolerance and variance inflation factor (VIF) were within the acceptable ranges (tolerance >0.10 and VIF <1.9; Mertler and Vannatta 2005).

Results

Perceived vulnerability to victimization, safety efficacy, victimization experiences, firearm-related experience, and reasons for gun ownership by gender

As Table 1 shows, women had higher perceived vulnerability to victimization than men, although all ratings were relatively low for men and women. Women also had significantly lower ratings on the safety efficacy scale than men. Overall, the majority of this sample of handgun owners had experienced interpersonal victimization, although more women (79.8%) indicated interpersonal victimization experiences than men (68.5%).

Table 1.

Bivariate Differences in Perceived Vulnerability to Victimization, Safety Efficacy, Victimization Experiences, Firearm-Related Experience, and Reasons for Gun Ownership

	Men (n = 201)	Women (n = 250)	DF	X² or F
Perceived vulnerability to victimization	0.9	1.1	1, 425	10.120^**
Safety efficacy	55.8	50.4	1, 425	29.724^***
Interpersonal victimization experiences	68.5%	79.8%	1	7.192^**
Experience with guns
Own handgun only	45.1%	51.9%	1	1.905
Own 1 gun	35.9%	42.0%	1	1.636
Average years owned guns	10.6	8.9	1, 424	2.584
First gun was bought within the past 3 years	34.2%	36.2%	1	0.179
I grew up with guns	49.5%	52.7%	1	0.434
Someone has taught me the correct way to shoot the gun	3.2	3.3	1, 425	1.607
Have practiced shooting in the past year	64.7%	54.7%	1	4.279^*
Carry gun on body in public (openly or concealed)	38.6%	26.7%	1	6.760^**
Have a conceal carry license	42.4%	34.2%	1	3.023
Reason for gun ownership
It makes me feel safer	92.4%	92.6%	1	0.006
Makes me feel more capable of protecting myself and/or my family	83.7%	83.5%	1	0.002
For protection from my ex-partner	16.3%	15.6%	1	0.035
For protection from strangers or people other than my ex-partner	94.0%	91.8%	1	0.789
Family or traditional reasons (e.g., It was given to me/passed down)	39.1%	38.7%	1	0.009
Shoot competitively, hunt, or use guns for other sports	45.1%	26.3%	1	16.344^***

p < 0.05.

p < 0.01.

***

p < 0.001.

Just over half of men and women indicated that they only had a handgun, while about 40% of both men and women indicated that they only had one gun. On average, gun owners in this study had guns for close to 10 years and about half reported they grew up around guns. Both men and women agreed that someone had taught them the correct way to shoot a gun. More men reported that they had practiced shooting their gun in the past year and more men carried their gun out in public compared to women.

There were few gender differences in reasons for gun ownership. Most of both men and women agreed that guns made them feel safer and made them feel more capable of protecting themselves and/or their families. Most also agreed that the gun was for protection from strangers rather than from ex-partners and that they owned guns for family or traditional reasons. However, more men agreed that they owned their guns to hunt or to shoot competitively than women.

Firearm-related worries and risk reduction strategies by gender

Overall, there were no gender differences in firearm-related worries (Table 2). Only about 20% agreed that they worried about children accessing their firearm, about half agreed that they worry about being charged or going to jail if they used their gun in self-defense, and about 40% agreed that they could not afford to practice shooting as much as they would like to. More women agreed that they worried that someone might take the gun and use it on them, and more women agreed that they did not have the money to take lessons or learn more about their gun than men.

Table 2.

Bivariate Differences on Gun-Related Worries and Risk Reduction Strategies

	Men (n = 201)	Women (n = 250)	DF	X² or F
Gun-related worries (7–28)	13.2	14.0	1, 425	3.716
I worry that if I were to protect myself with a gun I would be charged with a crime or jailed	44.6%	47.3%	1	0.321
I worry my children (or other people's children who visit) might access the gun	21.2%	21.8%	1	0.000
I worry I would intentionally shoot and/or kill someone with my gun	12.5%	14.4%	1	0.323
I worry I would unintentionally shoot and/or kill someone with my gun	16.8%	23.9%	1	3.128
I worry that someone might take the gun from me and use it on me	21.2%	35.8%	1	10.741^***
I cannot afford to target shoot as often as I would like	41.3%	39.1%	1	0.213
I do not have the money to take lessons or learn more about my gun	10.9%	22.2%	1	9.420^**
Risk reduction strategies (6–24)	19.4	19.4	1, 425	0.016
I keep the gun unloaded while at home or store bullets in a place separate from the gun	53.8%	59.3%	1	1.271
I always keep the gun loaded and ready to shoot	41.3%	42.4%	1	0.050
I always check to see if the gun is loaded/unloaded before doing anything with it	94.0%	93.8%	1	0.007
I never put my finger on the trigger of a loaded gun without intending to shoot	94.0%	93.4%	1	0.065
I am careful about where I shoot the gun (making sure nothing behind the target that could be damaged)	99.5%	96.3%	1	4.572
I wear eye and ear protection when target shooting	83.7%	83.5%	1	0.002
Gun Skills Competence (10–40)	30.7	27.0	1, 425	41.045^***
I feel confident in using my gun to protect myself at home	95.7%	81.9%	1	18.535^***
I feel confident in using my gun to protect myself out in public	71.7%	56.0%	1	11.145^**
I do not use my gun or have much to do with my gun	28.3%	41.2%	1	7.591^***
I do not know how to use my gun very well	7.1%	21.8%	1	17.423^***
I am a bit scared to use my gun	19.0%	42.0%	1	25.318^***
I am a very good shot	84.8%	70.8%	1	11.525^**
I have a natural way with guns	60.9%	44.0%	1	11.881^**
I clean my gun regularly after use	77.7%	59.7%	1	15.532^***
I know what to do when, or if, my gun jams	87.0%	63.8%	1	29.053^***
I have educated/taught others about guns	62.5%	35.8%	1	29.941^***

p < 0.01.

***

p < 0.001.

There were no gender differences for firearm-related risk reduction strategies, with most participants agreeing that they take a variety of precautions when storing and using their guns. Despite reporting high agreement of taking safety precautions, 40% agreed that they keep their guns loaded and ready to shoot.

More men than women agreed that they were confident in their ability to use their gun, they were good shots, they had a natural way with guns, they know what to do if their gun jams, and that they had helped others with their guns.

Factors associated with firearm-related reduction strategies

Table 3 shows the results of the multivariate analysis with the two outcome measures of firearm-related risk reduction strategies (risk reduction strategies and gun skills competence) across gender. Regarding women's risk reduction strategies, having someone who taught them about guns was associated with higher risk reduction strategies, while longer gun ownership (in years) and carrying the gun out in public were related to lower risk reduction strategies. For men, carrying the gun out in public was associated with lower risk reduction strategies.

Table 3.

Factors Associated with Firearm-Related Risk Reduction Strategies by Gender

	Women		Men
	B	t	B	t
Risk reduction strategies
Age	0.082	1.019	−0.078	−0.752
Income	−0.040	−0.623	0.071	0.921
Perceived vulnerability to victimization	−0.068	−0.966	−0.036	−0.448
Safety efficacy	−0.061	−0.797	0.077	0.848
Interpersonal victimization experience	−0.053	−0.776	−0.008	−0.099
Average years owned guns	−0.166	−2.035^*	−0.066	−0.633
I grew up with guns	0.051	0.768	0.018	0.232
Someone has taught me the correct way to shoot the gun	0.239	3.379^**	0.136	1.659
Past year shooting practice	0.070	0.991	0.106	1.345
Gun carry	−0.156	−2.247^*	−0.159	−2.030^*
Gun-related worries	−0.035	−0.465	0.036	0.429
Skills competence
Age	−0.023	−0.452	0.028	0.385
Income	−0.071	−1.719	−0.027	−0.503
Perceived vulnerability to victimization	0.032	0.721	0.028	0.485
Safety efficacy	0.288	5.866^***	0.192	3.007^**
Interpersonal victimization experience	−0.068	−1.567	0.074	1.346
Average years owned guns	0.084	1.607	0.137	1.866
I grew up with guns	0.059	1.380	0.081	1.457
Someone has taught me the correct way to shoot the gun	0.212	4.700^***	0.285	4.937^***
Past year shooting practice	0.229	5.048^***	0.192	3.464^**
Gun carry	0.223	5.045^***	0.186	3.371^**
Gun-related worries	−0.221	−4.608^***	−0.278	−4.690^***

p < 0.05.

p < 0.01.

***

p < 0.001.

Factors associated with gun skills competence were similar for men and women. Specifically, having someone teach them about guns, past year shooting practice, higher safety efficacy, carrying the gun out in public, and lower gun-related worries were associated with higher gun skills competence for both men and women.

Discussion

There are a significant number of handguns in private households in the United States, and handguns are associated with an increased risk of injuries and death (Azrael et al. 2017; Hanlon et al. 2019; Laqueur et al. 2019; Maghami et al. 2020; Parker et al. 2017). There are also a number of attempts to reduce firearm-related violence, including gun confiscation policies for individuals with protective orders and certain criminal convictions as well as implementing restrictions for who can buy guns (Gollub and Gardner 2019; Lee et al. 2017; Sivaraman et al. 2019; Zeoli and Paruk 2020). However, these policies are not implemented uniformly across the United States and can sometimes be difficult to enforce (Everytown for Gun Safety 2019a; Gollub and Gardner 2019; Lynch and Logan 2020; Sivaraman et al. 2019). Even at full enforcement of gun confiscation and restriction legislation, the number of guns in the United States would remain high (Azrael et al. 2017; Michael et al. 2014; Parker et al. 2017; Smith and Son 2019). Thus, multiple strategies, which include those that maximize safe practices among gun owners, are needed to reduce firearm-related risks.

This study is one of the firsts to explore gender differences and firearm-related risk reduction strategies among handgun owners. There are four main findings that are discussed further, including (1) men and women handgun owners were similar in many ways, however, more women reported impersonal victimization experiences, were concerned about their personal safety, and they had lower self-reported gun skills competence and practice; (2) few gun owners worried about children accessing the gun or that they would shoot and/or kill someone, although more women worried about someone taking the gun and using it on them; (3) firearm-related risk reduction strategies were positively related to having someone teach them about their guns and negatively related to length of time of gun ownership for women, while carrying a gun in public was negatively associated with risk reduction strategies for both men and women; and (4) gun skills competence was associated with having someone who taught participants about using a gun, past year shooting practice, higher safety efficacy, carrying a gun in public, and lower gun-related worries for both men and women.

Similar to other studies, men and women gun owners in the current study were mostly white, lived in suburban areas, worked full- or part-time, and had at least some college education (Parker et al. 2017). Over half of both men and women handgun owners owned more than one gun, and about half, many owned a shotgun and/or rifle as well as handguns. About half of the sample, regardless of gender, reported that they grew up with guns, which is consistent with national reports (Parker et al. 2017). On average, these gun owners had their gun for 9.6 years and about one-third of both groups had recently bought their first gun. Also, although overall rates of perceived vulnerability to future victimization was low and prior interpersonal victimization experiences were high (75%) for both men and women handgun owners in the current study, women perceived themselves more vulnerable to victimization and more had interpersonal victimization experiences than men (80% vs. 69%). Even so, more men had practiced shooting in the past year and carried their weapon on their body openly or concealed. Thus, a greater understanding of the role fear of crime victimization and past victimization experiences play not only in gun ownership but also in firearm-related behavior such as carrying a gun by gender is needed.

The current study also found gender differences for safety efficacy (i.e., the perceived capability of stopping, deterring, or coping with a threat at the bivariate level), which is consistent with prior research (Logan 2020a, 2020b; Logan and Walker 2017). However, this study also found that safety efficacy, for both men and women, was associated with higher gun skills competence in the multivariate analysis. In general, many recommendations about increasing personal safety focus on ways to avoid victimization such as not going out alone or avoiding certain places or areas (Bedera and Nordmeyer 2015; Gidycz et al. 2002; Ullman 2007). These messages may feel constraining and victim blaming (Bedera and Nordmeyer 2015). On the contrary, gun rights activists and marketing strategies focus on the messages that guns are a good self-protection strategy (Arrigo and Acheson 2016; Bouffard et al. 2012; Carlson 2013). Several recent studies found that gun ownership was associated with increased safety planning activities and more assertive response intentions to an attack, with or without a weapon, and increased bystander intervention if witnessing an attack (Logan 2020a, 2020b; Logan and Walker 2017). However, higher safety efficacy was more consistently related to safety planning and response intentions than gun ownership suggesting that mindset in the perception of capability and confidence in managing a threat is more important in safety planning than gun ownership alone (Logan 2020b). Thus, focusing on safety planning without a gun may be an important strategy in reducing the reliance on a gun for safety, which may, in turn, reduce gun risks. If an individual does not have a variety of safety strategies and feel capable in applying those strategies beyond using a gun, their risk for accidents involving a gun may increase. This could particularly be the case for those with victimization histories and higher fear for personal safety. Future research is needed to better understand the personal safety planning gun owners engage in beyond a firearm and how those strategies differ by gender.

When examining firearm-related worries, only about 1 in 5 men and women handgun owners agreed that they worried about children accessing their firearm. The rate of unintentional firearm death in the United States is 10 times higher than in other developed countries (Richardson and Hemenway 2011) and children and adolescents are at highest risk of firearm injuries (Everytown for Gun Safety 2020; Marshall et al. 2020). It may be that fewer handgun owners worried about children accessing their gun because the majority of the sample did not have children. However, there are many ways for children and adolescents or young adults to access their firearms, including visiting the residence and break-ins. Storing the firearm safely can help prevent firearm injuries (Everytown for Gun Safety 2020). Very few men or women handgun owners worried about shooting or killing someone accidentally or intentionally and just under half worried about going to jail if they were to use their gun to protect themselves. However, women were more worried about someone taking the gun from them. More research is needed to better understand firearm-related worries and how these worries may or may not be related to firearm-related risk reduction strategies such as storing firearms in a locked safe and/or keeping firearms unloaded in the home. Better understanding of these issues may play an important role in preventing further firearm injury.

The multivariate analysis found, in addition to safety efficacy, that experience and practice with guns were associated with gun skills competence regardless of gender. Both experience with guns and gun practice are associated with reduced accidents and increased gun skills competence (Barnhart et al. 2017; O'Neill et al. 2019; Vince et al. 2015). Using a gun safely likely requires both a physical and mental engagement that needs to be routinized to become habitual (Barnhart et al. 2017). In other words, gun readiness skills and practice should lead to automatic and habitual routines associated with gun handling competence much like driving a car safely. Tacit knowledge of how to engage in gun practices develops when an individual has repeated the practices enough to become competent and fluid at manipulating the body in ways required by the practice. Practices are deeply embedded in everyday life, but sometimes when not fully developed, or when bad habits are developed, they may be difficult to modify (Hargraves 2011).

Another key finding was that having someone teach the participant the correct way to shoot a gun was associated with both gun skills competence and risk reduction strategies. Although a recent study found that gun training was not associated with safer storage of guns (Berrigan et al. 2019), the current study examined the issue of gun safety beyond simply the way a gun is stored. Thus, having support through being taught the proper way to handle a gun, as well as having at least one consistent person who can model gun safety and be available for questions about the gun may be an important strategy for increasing gun safety. A survey found that, in fact, gun owners reported that their storage decisions were influenced by a gun safety course or discussions with family members (Crifasi et al. 2018). Clearly more research is needed to better understand the role of training and social support, beyond cultural influences, have on firearm handling and risk reduction strategies.

Notably, women, compared to men, in the current study reported higher agreement with not having the money to take lessons or learn more about their gun. Investing in quality training and making it accessible to people who have guns, or who are thinking about getting a gun, regardless of their resources, is critical to maximizing responsible gun ownership. Up to one-third of non-gun owners are thinking about getting a gun (Parker et al. 2017), so potential first-time gun owners may be particularly important to target. However, although firearm course often includes information about clearing jams and safe handling of the gun, few include discussion of the risks associated with suicide, domestic violence, or the role of stolen firearms in gun crimes (Hemenway et al. 2019). Getting this information to gun owners through classes as well as through friends and family is crucial. Studies suggest that gun owners trust law enforcement, hunting or outdoor organizations, the National Rifle Association, and friends/family members for credible information about firearms, while they have lower trust from physicians or celebrities (Crifasi et al. 2018). Positive social support regarding guns might increase safety through risk reduction, good habit development, and increased awareness of the dangers associated with guns. Given the research in this area is scant, it would be fruitful for future research to examine barriers to accessing adequate gun training, such as economic and time costs. In particular, examining gender differences in barriers may be important. In other words, having barriers to good quality training and other gun safety strategies such as a gun safe may be associated with lower gun skills competence and higher firearm handling risks.

There are several limitations of this study. First, this sample is not representative of all handgun owners, and the ability to generalize all gun owners in the United States may be limited. This sample was a convenience sample to learn more about handgun owners and their gun readiness practices and to better understand gender differences. The sample was also relatively small and not diverse, which may also potentially impact generalizability. However, similar to our sample, gun owners in the United States are typically white and used according to national polls (e.g., Parker et al. 2017). Next, this study is largely exploratory in nature as there is a dearth of research that has empirically investigated concepts such as gun skills competence, gun experiences, and risk reduction strategies involving guns. Furthermore, it is not entirely clear from the literature whether focusing only on one risk mitigation strategy like storage is the way to go or whether focusing on a broader set of strategies may be better. Because this study is one of the firsts to examine gun skills competence and risk reduction strategies, there may be a variety of items to explore that were not included in this study.

Even within these limitations, this study contributes to the sparse literature on handgun ownership. The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic and increased gun sales will take years to evaluate, but will likely have both short-term and long-term impacts (Hoops et al. 2020). In the meantime, it is unlikely for the number of firearms in the United States to decline any time soon. This, gun violence prevention strategies should be diversified to include efforts beyond firearm prohibition by also focusing on safe firearm handling and responsible gun ownership practices.

Footnotes

Author Disclosure Statement

No competing financial interests exist.

Funding Information

The author acknowledges the University of Kentucky Department of Behavioral Science for funding this research as well as Jeb Messer for help with the data collection.

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