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See id.

Pellegrino E.D. and Sharpe V.A. , “Medical Ethics in the Courtroom: The Need for Scrutiny,” Perspectives in Biology and Medicine, 32 (1989): 547–564.

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Rubin S. , When Doctors Say No: The Battleground of Medical Futility (Bloomington, Indiana: University Press; 1998): at 47.

Feldman D. , Health and Medicine in the Jewish Tradition (New York: Crossroads Publishing; 1986); “Standards and Guidelines for Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation and Emergency Cardiac Care: Ethical Considerations in Resuscitation” JAMA, 268 (1992): 2282–88; Youngner S.J. “Who Defines Futility?” JAMA, 260 (1988): 2094.

Youngner , id. at 2094–95.

Tomlinson T.L. and Brody H. , “Ethics and Communication in Do-Not-Resuscitate Orders,” N. Engl. J. Med., 318 (1988): 43–46; Youngner , “Who Defines Futility?” id. at 2094.

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Schneiderman L.J. Jecker N.S. and Jonsen A.R. , “Medical Futility: Its Meaning and Ethical Implications,” Annals of Internal Medicine 15 (1990): 949–54.

Barber v. Superior Court of California , 147 Cal. App. 3d 106, 1017–18, 195 Cal. Rptr. 484 (1983).

Schneiderman Jecker and Jonsen , supra note 12, at 950; Schneiderman L.J. and Jecker N.S. , Wrong Medicine: Doctors, Patients, and Futile Treatment (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995), 159; Thomasma D.C. , “Beyond Medical Paternalism and Patient Autonomy: A Model of Physician Conscience for the Physician-Patient Relationship,” Annals of Internal Medicine 98 (1983): 243–48.

Lo B. and Jonsen A.R. , “Clinical Decisions to Limit Treatment,” Annals of Internal Medicine 93 (1980): 764–68; and Paris J. J. Crone R.K. , and Reardon F.E. , “Physicians' Refusal of Requested Treatment: The Case of Baby L,” N. Engl. J. Med., 322 (1990): 1012–15.

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Jecker N.S. and Pearlman R.A. , “Medical Futility: Who Decides?” Archives of Internal Medicine 152 (1992): 1140–1144; 1984 Amendments to the Child Abuse Prevention and Treatment Act, Public Law 98–457, 1984; Schneiderman Jecker , and Jonsen , supra note 12, at 950; Schneiderman and Jecker , supra note 14, 17.

Schneiderman Jecker , and Jonsen , supra note 12, at 952–53; Schneiderman and Jecker , supra note 14, at 17.

Lantos J.D. , “The Illusion of Futility in Clinical Practice,” American Journal of Medicine 87 (1989): 81–84; and Lo B. and Jonsen A.R. “Clinical Decisions to Limit Treatment,” 764.

Lo and Jonsen , supra note 15, at 764.

Bedell S.E. , “Survival after Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation in the Hospital,” N. Engl. J. Med., 309 (1983): 569–76; Blackhall L.J. , “Must We Always Use CPR?” N. Engl. J. Med., 317 (1987): 1218–84.

Taffet G.E. Teasdale T.A. , and Luchi R.J. , “In-Hospital Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation,” JAMA, 260 (1988): 2069–72.

Perkins H.S. , “Ethics at the End of Life: Practical Principles for Making Resuscitation Decisions,” Journal of General Internal Medicine 1 (1986): 170–76; Ruark J.E. and Raffin T.A. “Initiating and Withdrawing Life Support: Principles and Practice in Adult Medicine,” N. Engl. J. Med. 318 (1988): 25–30.

Jecker N.S. and Pearlman R.A. , “Medical Futility;” Schneiderman Jecker , and Jonsen , supra note 12, at 951–52; Youngner , supra note 8, at 2094.

“Joint Statement on Resuscitative Intervention (Update 1995),” Canadian Medical Association Journal 153 (1995): 1652A-C.

“MMA Takes Position on Futile Therapy.” Inter-Com (November 1997): 6.

Rubin S. , When Doctors Say No: The Battleground of Medical Futility, (Bloomington, Indiana: University Press; 1998): at 9.

Baylis F. , “Resuscitation of the Terminally Ill: A Response to Buckman and Senn,” Canadian Medical Association Journal 141 (1989): 1043.

Benjamin M. , Splitting the Difference: Compromise and Integrity in Ethics and Politics, (Kansas: University Press of Kansas, 1990).