Easing Refugee Pressure on Host States and Communities: The Contribution of Faith-Based Organisations in Kakuma Refugee Camp,Kenya

Introduction

The international refugee protection regime assigns the responsibility of refugee protection to states (Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees, 1951). However, large-scale refugee movements have severely affected the economies, services and societies of refugee-hosting states (UNDP, 2023). Consequently, states are increasingly viewing refugees as a burden (Klein, 2021). Furthermore, public policies and the attitude of citizens have tilted against the refugees. It is, therefore, not surprising that refugee-hosting states are overtly disregarding their obligations towards refugees (Crisp and Maple, 2021). This situation creates refugee protection gaps that jeopardise the rights of refugees.

These gaps impede refugees’ access to essential services and legal protections, thereby exacerbating their vulnerability (Okello, 2024). Notably, the protection gaps stem not only from states’ reluctance to uphold refugees’ rights but also from their limited capacity to provide the necessary protection (United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees [UNHCR], 2008). As such, there is a need for organisations that understand the plight of refugees to support states by lightening refugee pressure. Faith-based non-governmental organisations (FBOs) exemplify such entities. Therefore, this article investigates how FBOs address the critical refugee-protection gaps that emerge as a result of refugee pressure on refugee-hosting states. The central question that the article responds to is: To what extent have FBOs helped ease refugee pressure on host states and communities?

The article focuses on FBOs because of their uniqueness. In contrast to other refugee-protection actors, FBOs are driven not only by humanitarian ideals but also by their strong religious beliefs (Jahani and Parayandeh, 2024). Their religious convictions and sense of moral duty encourage them to take on a distinctive role in protecting refugees (Zhang, 2024). They strive to promote the sanctity of life and human dignity (Goldsmith et al., 2006). This disposition helps foster trust among government officials, belligerents, and refugees. Therefore, they enjoy exceptional access to the refugee community, government officials (Khafagy, 2020) and parties involved in conflict. As such, they are well-positioned to play a vital and distinctive role in addressing the challenge of refugee pressure. To what extent have these unique strengths enabled FBOs to reduce refugee pressure on host states and communities?

FBOs and Easing of Refugee Pressure: A Review of Literature

The article adopts UNHCR's definition of FBOs as a broad range of organisations largely founded or operating, to a great extent, on religious principles. FBOs comprise religion-affiliated institutions, communities, and not-for-profit organisations with religious personalities or goals (UNHCR, 2014). Refugee pressure, on the other hand, is understood as the demands and strains that host states and communities face due to the influx of forced migrants. Such pressure may manifest in various forms, including strain on social services such as education and healthcare, increased competition for resources like housing and employment, and potential social tensions between refugees and local populations. In a nutshell, the pressure falls on resources and the relationship between the refugees and host communities.

An extensive literature review suggests that there are limited studies that have evaluated the role of FBOs in easing the pressures faced by refugee-hosting states and communities. This article addresses this gap by examining the case of FBOs operating in Kakuma Refugee Camp. The existing literature broadly explores the role of FBOs in refugee protection (Gomez, 2021; Nawyn, 2017; Stoddard and Marshall, 2015). Other studies discuss the contributions of FBOs to various aspects of refugee life, including entrepreneurship (Nicholson, 2018), refugee resettlement (Garnier, 2018), as well as development (Islam, 2018; Koehrsen and Heuser, 2020). Additional studies on FBOs highlight their distinct features (Chioma, 2017; James, 2009) or draw comparisons between faith-based and secular entities (Goldsmith et al., 2006; Ferris, 2017). The body of literature closely related to this research's subject matter encompasses the contributions of scholars like Sulewski, Mencütek, and Nagel.

Indeed, some of the closely related literature identifies FBOs as key contributors to refugee protection (Sulewski, 2020; Nagel, 2023). However, they do not focus on FBOs within refugee camp settings but examine their contributions in a broader context. Failure to focus on refugee camps could mean that the research findings may not entirely apply to refugee camp situations.

Other works explore the role of FBOs and faith leaders in reducing refugee pressure on host communities. However, they focus on the experiences of a single FBO, hence making the scope of their findings somewhat limited. For instance, UNHCR's article, “Local Faith Leaders Supporting Refugees and Host Communities in Uganda,” focuses exclusively on the Lutheran World Federation (LWF) (UNHCR, 2025). Consequently, the research findings may not be conclusive on the roles of most FBOs.

Similarly, some works, such as Mencütek's, “Faith-Based Actors in Şanlıurfa, Turkey: Reducing Tensions between Host Populations and Syrian Refugee Communities,” focus on a single aspect of easing refugee pressure (Mencütek, 2020). Mencütek's work only investigates the role of FBOs in easing refugee pressure on host communities. Therefore, it overlooks the contributions of FBOs in reducing the pressure on host governments. Another limitation of Mencütek's work is that the research is confined to FBOs established by refugees themselves. As a result, the findings cannot be applied to all other refugee-protection FBOs in refugee camps.

Furthermore, the existing literature has not yet examined FBOs within the context of the 2018 Global Compact on Refugees (GCR), even though it offers a suitable setting for analysing refugee protection initiatives. As a result, scholarly articles have not assessed how FBOs align with the expectations of the GCR. The framework acknowledges that countries, despite facing significant challenges of their own, contribute a global public good on behalf of the international community by hosting refugees (Türk, 2019). Promulgated in 2018, the GCR presents a unique opportunity to revolutionise the global response to refugee situations since it aims to ensure that host communities receive the necessary support and that refugees are empowered to lead meaningful lives (UNHCR, 2018).

This research is also distinctive in that it employs the functionalist theory to evaluate FBOs’ contribution to refugee protection within the framework of the GCR. Using Kakuma Refugee Camp as a case study, the article offers a reflective assessment of the contributions of FBOs towards achieving the first objective of the GCR: easing refugee pressure on refugee-hosting states (UNHCR, 2018).

Theoretical Framework

The article employs the functionalist theory, a sociological perspective that examines society by analysing the roles of its various institutions (Turner and Maryanski, 1979). This theory conceptualises society as a system of interconnected elements that fulfil its members’ biological and social requirements (Herbert, 1980). When applied to the study of refugee protection, functionalism can provide important insights into the role of FBOs as social institutions that fulfil critical functions for both refugee and host communities.

Therefore, this study applies this theory to examine how FBOs enhance refugee protection by addressing the specific needs of refugees, host communities, and host states. Similarly, since functionalism views society as a network of interconnected elements, the study employs it to assess the collaboration between FBOs and various other organisations. For the same reason, the study employs the theory to evaluate FBOs’ role in reducing tensions and conflicts between refugees and host communities in Kakuma Refugee Camp. This theory's focus on societal stability and cohesion provides a lens through which the study evaluates the effectiveness of FBO initiatives.

Although the functionalist school of thought is suitable for analysing this study, it has previously faced criticism from Marxist and feminist scholars. The critics mainly argue that functionalism presents a rose-coloured view of society (Lagunas, ). By this, they mean that functionalists excessively focus on the positive functions of institutions, thereby overlooking the adverse effects that certain institutions have on individuals. This study addressed this limitation by posing open-ended questions to the research participants regarding their views on FBO efficacy. This strategy allowed participants to critically assess FBOs, rather than solely focusing on their achievements.

Methodology

Kakuma refugee camp serves as a suitable case study because it is Kenya's most diverse refugee camp and one of the largest multi-ethnic refugee sites globally (Lutheran World Federation, 2015). One of the camp's remarkable achievements is the harmonious co-existence of citizens from 13 different nations within 12 square kilometres (ReliefWeb, 2012). Consequently, the research benefited from the diverse experiences and backgrounds of refugees from different countries and cultures. This diversity is crucial for ensuring that the research outcomes are relevant (Shea et al., 2022) and applicable to a wide range of refugee groups and FBOs.

As of 31 March 2025, Kakuma's registered population stood at 303,247, with 222,078 in Kakuma Camp and 78,905 in Kalobeyei settlement (UNHCR Kenya, 2025). Notably, most refugees in Kakuma Refugee Camp are from South Sudan and Somalia (UNHCR, 2024). This article collectively refers to both the camp and the Kalobeyei Integrated Settlement as the Kakuma Refugee Camp, although they are technically distinct entities. The Kalobeyei Integrated Settlement was created in June 2015 (following negotiations between UNHCR, the National Government, the Turkana County Government and the host community of Kalobeyei) to ease congestion in the Kakuma refugee camp. Despite the integration of the host community and refugees in the Kalobeyei Integrated Settlement, significant challenges were common in both sites (Betts et al., 2020).

The authors conducted their field research in June and July 2022. To comply with ethical standards, they obtained research approval from the University of Nairobi, Kenya's National Commission for Science, Technology and Innovation, and the State Department of Refugee Services (DRS). Primary data was collected mainly from the refugee population in Kakuma Refugee Camp. Six focus group discussions (FGDs), 34 key informant interviews, and non-participant observation were the means through which data were collected.

The six FGDs each comprised an average of eight respondents. In total, 50 refugees participated in the FGDs. Notably, the refugees are the primary beneficiaries of the services FBOs provide in the camp. The six FGD categories were as follows: refugees of South Sudanese descent, refugees of Somali descent, refugees of all other nationalities, refugees from Kalobeyei Integrated Settlement, women refugees, and refugees living with disabilities.

Non-participant observations provided a contextual understanding of the refugee environment and interactions between refugees and host communities. The study used a non-probability sampling method because it allowed for non-random selection of individuals based on convenience and relevance to the research.

The adoption of the functionalist framework influenced the selection of research participants.

This selection was purposive, guided by the theory's emphasis on understanding the roles of various social actors in maintaining societal stability. Incorporating FBO and Secular Non-governmental Organisation (SNGO) representatives was crucial in harnessing a comprehensive and balanced assessment of the FBOs. The research incorporated community leaders and refugees to capture grassroots perspectives, thereby reflecting functionalism's emphasis on the interconnectivity of societal roles. Accordingly, the key informants included officers working with FBOs, SNGOs, Kenya's DRS, the UNHCR, and community and religious leaders. Table 1 captures these data.

The researchers interviewed respondents from all eight FBOs operating in Kakuma Refugee Camp. The FBOs were World Vision (WV) International, African Inland Church-Health Ministries (AIC-HM), LWF, Finn Church Aid (FCA), DanChurchAid, Salesians of Don Bosco, Jesuit Refugee Service (JRS), and the National Council of Churches of Kenya (NCCK). The researchers also interviewed respondents from four SNGOs: Humanity and Inclusion (formerly Handicap International), Waldorf, COHERE, and Peace Winds Japan.

For data analysis, the researchers employed a qualitative content analysis approach. They used inductive coding (coding the material without a pre-defined code list) to identify emerging themes. They followed a series of defined steps: close reading for familiarity, generating initial codes, searching for themes, refining and reviewing initial themes and conducting final analysis. The steps were iterative, meaning that the analysis process was not linear but involved repeating some steps and redeveloping themes. The codes were developed inductively, preserving the accuracy of participants’ opinions and voices. The case study is an analytical rather than a statistical generalisation.

The Role of FBOs in Easing Refugee Pressure on the Government of Kenya

Given that the GCR aims to reduce refugee pressure on host states by promoting international cooperation and responsibility-sharing (UNHCR, 2018), this section examines how FBOs have assumed refugee-protection responsibilities and collaborated with other refugee-protection entities. The results are juxtaposed with the theory of functionalism and the existing literature to enhance the rigour and quality of the study's conclusions.

Apart from refugee participants from the Kalobeyei integrated settlement, all other refugee respondents expressed appreciation for FBOs’ contributions towards alleviating refugee pressure on the Kenyan government. The refugee respondents from Kalobeyei were hesitant and non-committal in recognising the contributions of FBOs. However, they were quick to add: “…the contributions of the Salesians of Don Bosco towards education and those of the AIC-HM towards the health sector are manifestly outstanding” (FGD with Refugees from Kalobeyei, 13 June 2022).

The Kalobeyei respondents proceeded to praise Don Bosco for offering refugees free vocational training. A youthful respondent explained: “The training centres have been instruments of hope for many of our youths … they have equipped us with skills that have enabled us to be economically independent individuals” (FGD with Refugees from Kalobeyei, 13 June 2022).

Indeed, the researchers observed that the Salesians of Don Bosco had established four vocational training centres at the Kakuma Youth Centre, a club (Savio Club) for refugees and the host community, and a parish called Holy Cross Parish. This FBO collaborated with the DRS, UNHCR, the Catholic Diocese of Lodwar and other refugee protection actors to provide vital services to the refugee and host communities in Kakuma. Therefore, the initial hesitance of the Kalobeyei respondents to recognise the contributions of FBOs can be understood as arising from the significant challenges they continued to face. These enduring difficulties may have clouded their perceptions.

All FBO respondents posited that FBOs lessened refugee pressure on host governments by providing essential services. Concerning educational facilities, one FBO respondent remarked: “…the government does not seem worried about it. It is FBOs such as the LWF and FCA that contract teachers and school counsellors as well as furnish schools with books, desks, pupils’ uniforms and essential items” (Field Interview, NCCK Representative, 15 June 2022). With school-age children constituting over half of the refugee population in Kenya (UNHCR Kenya, 2023), supporting the education sector for this population is a fundamental contribution to refugee protection.

A respondent working with LWF praised the JRS for establishing a protection centre for vulnerable girls and women in Kakuma. She said that the shelter, known as Safe Haven, is dedicated to protecting victims and those at risk of sexual and gender-based violence. She added, “Safe Haven is a highly protected space that also provides pre-school for children, adult education for grown-ups, and counselling services for those in need” (Field Interview, LWF Representative, 17 June 2022).

Doubtless, this service is crucial for the protection of refugee girls and women. This is particularly because overpopulation and deplorable living conditions contribute to an increase in cases of aggression and a higher risk of girls becoming victims of human trafficking, rape, forced marriage, and gender-based violence. The torment endured due to forced displacement, along with sexual and gender-based violence, exacerbates their physical and psychological distress (Horn and Seelinger, 2013).

FBOs were also committed to providing special education services for children with special needs. “We do not have government-funded facilities dedicated to caring for children with special needs. Therefore, the services offered by JRS are indispensable,” asserted an NCCK officer (Field Interview, NCCK Representative, 15 June 2022). Similarly, an LWF Officer added, “…FBO schools provide significant protection for children, especially those who are vulnerable” (Field Interview, LWF Representative, 17 June 2022).

Indeed, schools facilitate social interaction among children, closely monitor their abilities and attitudes and support those needing special care. Furthermore, in refugee camps, children with disabilities often lack access to essential services. They are also at a heightened risk of experiencing stigma and discrimination compared to their non-refugee counterparts (Jesuit Refugee Service, 2021). This finding is consistent with a Swahili saying, “Mto ulikunjama, sababu ulikosa mtu wa kuuongoza,” meaning “the river meanders because it did not have a guide.” The proverb is used to indicate the significance of education (and counsel) in nurturing a well-rounded individual.

Respondents working with UNHCR and the DRS shared similar views on the role of FBOs towards reducing refugee pressure on host governments. They observed that FBOs lessened refugee pressure by providing essential services to the refugees. A DRS respondent asserted, “…teachers and doctors working in Kakuma Refugee Camp are chiefly employed by FBOs and other NGOs, not the state” (Field Interview, DRS Representative, 24 June 2022). In particular, the UNHCR and DRS respondents highlighted the efforts made by the African Inland Church-Health Ministries (AIC-HM) in tackling COVID-19 in refugee camps as exceptional. AIC-HM carried out screenings and administered vaccinations against the coronavirus.

Community and religious leaders noted that FBOs enhanced Kakuma's security by building facilities such as houses and a police station fence for law enforcement personnel. They observed that community peace programmes by FBOs such as the LWF and the NCCK had improved the security situation in Kakuma. The FBOs’ persistent demands for adherence to specific moral standards also discouraged violence and fostered peace. “For sure, such calls have helped inculcate a culture of discipline and high regard for integrity,” stated a respondent working with Humanity and Inclusion (Field Interview, Humanity and Inclusion Representative, 21 June 2022).

Carafone (2018) concurs with the observation that fostering a culture of discipline and integrity can result in improved security. She contends that individuals who renounce criminality or reject involvement in criminal organisations often cite religious and ethical principles as their reasons for opposing criminal tendencies.

These findings are consistent with the functionalist theory and the GCR, as they demonstrate FBOs’ important and unique roles in supporting the Kenyan government with refugee protection. Given the significant contribution of FBOs to refugee protection, without their support, the Kenyan government would have been overwhelmed by the challenges of hosting refugees.

The Role of FBOs in Promoting Harmonious Co-Existence Between Refugees and Host Communities

The influx of refugees significantly increases the population in a given area, thereby heightening the demand for limited resources. As a result, this situation often puts a strain on the relationship between the refugees and the local communities (Sharmarke, 2023). Therefore, fostering harmonious and productive relationships, particularly between long-term refugees and the host population, requires continuous efforts to prevent tension, adversity or outright hostility. Its major setback is often the hardening of attitudes by the hosts against the refugees and vice versa (Porter et al., 2008).

This section examines how FBOs have fostered harmonious and mutually beneficial relationships between host and refugee communities in Kakuma Refugee Camp. It builds on the previous section regarding how FBOs assist host governments in meeting their obligations to refugee populations. Similarly, it uses the theory of functionalism as a lens to analyse the unique role FBOs play in maintaining society's smooth operation.

Large camps often face significant challenges in fostering harmonious relationships between refugees and host communities, mainly due to the more pronounced effects of a larger refugee population. Moreover, higher numbers of refugees result in greater diversity in needs, desires, and personalities. Additionally, envy may arise among an economically challenged host population that views itself as overlooked while the refugee population continues to receive sustained support from aid organisations (Porter et al., 2008).

Various platforms, such as sporting events, cultural festivals, choir competitions, and prayer gatherings organised by FBOs, fostered engagement between refugees and host communities. These occasions attracted participation and viewership from both groups, thereby promoting a spirit of harmonious co-existence. A Congolese refugee remarked, “These events instil social skills such as fair play, leadership, tolerance, teamwork, and the ability to handle defeat and conflict” (FGD with refugees of different nationalities, 22 June 2022). These sentiments align with the claim that the socio-economic arena serves as one of the most effective forums for creating and nurturing collaboration between refugees and hosts (Kwamboka, 2017).

A female refugee added, “FBOs in Kakuma have trained sports coaches and teachers to skilfully use sports to promote the exchange of meaningful experiences and encourage tolerance between the host and refugee communities” (FGD with refugees of different nationalities, 22 June 2022). For example, the refugees mentioned that LWF, in conjunction with UNHCR, organised the Kakuma Got Talent festivals, Kakuma Basketball Championships and the Kakuma Premier League.

FBOs led several mediation meetings to encourage constructive interactions and lasting peace between the refugees and the hosts. Religious and community leaders leveraged their authority as ethical figures to motivate adversaries to participate in discussions. “In most cases, FBOs and religious institutions are perceived as non-partisan and, therefore, best placed to advance mediation,” remarked a refugee working as an incentive teacher (FGD with Refugees from Kalobeyei, 13 June 2022).

One respondent working with an SNGO asserted, “Faith leaders and FBOs are ideally positioned to engage with the hearts and minds of those at the centre of disagreement” (Field Interview, Peace Winds Japan Representative, 28 June 2022). Indeed, faith leaders in Kakuma Refugee Camp had earned the moral authority that enabled them to act and speak “in the name of the people and God.”

Carafone (2018) agrees with this finding. She contends that when the host communities became hostile because of the perception that the refugees were demanding too much from them, FBOs and spiritual leaders had a way of diffusing the tension by using the spiritual discourse of grace. The FBOs achieved this by recognising that the hosts were in dire need of assistance, while simultaneously encouraging them to share whatever limited resources they had with those less fortunate than themselves.

This finding aligns with the assertion that authentic religious faith fosters love, compassion, tolerance, and unconditional acceptance of others, irrespective of differences in race, creed, or ethnicity (Zed, 2023). Consequently, it supports the theory of functionalism by illustrating that religion plays a vital role in unifying society. However, this perspective significantly contrasts with historical instances where religion was employed to incite or justify atrocities such as slavery, witch hunts, crusades, and the destruction of native cultures by missionaries. In these instances, religion contributed to the promotion of intolerance, bigotry, elitism, oppression, and the annihilation of various cultures (Clarke et al., 2013).

FBOs promoted harmonious co-existence by sensitising the masses on the need for peace and the importance of a collaborative relationship between hosts and refugees. They did a commendable job changing the mindsets of refugees and hosts alike so that they did not perceive each other as adversaries. An officer working with JRSs reported: “…together with religious leaders, they (FBOs) taught how important it was to cultivate a symbiotic relationship between hosts and refugees” (Field Interview, JRS Representative, 21 June 2022). As a result, the hosts and the refugees appreciated each other more, even to the extent of the hosts vehemently opposing any plans to close down Kenya's refugee camps (Kenya News Agency, 2021).

Alongside advocating for peace from the pulpits to their congregations, faith leaders and FBOs organised outreach programmes to engage a wider audience. Examples of these programmes included WV's Citizens’ Voice and Action Project and LWF's Community Peace and Self-Management Committee.

FBOs also fostered harmonious co-existence by offering essential services and amenities to both refugees and hosts, thereby reducing resource competition. “Boreholes constructed by the NCCK and health facilities operated by the AIC-HM and the Catholic Church serve both the refugee and host communities,” reported one LWF officer (Field Interview, LWF Representative, 17 June 2022). Likewise, learners from the refugee and host communities gained access to education in schools funded primarily by the LWF and the FCA.

This finding supports Carafone's (2018) assertion that FBOs recognise that spiritual guidance alone cannot foster harmonious relationships among communities that may conflict because of competition for limited resources. They understand the challenges faced by refugees and their hosts and, therefore, adopt carefully considered and mutually beneficial approaches.

Many respondents, including officers from UNHCR and DRS, noted that the efforts of FBOs to provide essential amenities for refugees and hosts helped ease tensions in the camps. “FBOs such as WV International drilled boreholes and dug water pans to harvest rainwater, building the resilience of the refugee and host populations,” cited an officer working with the Department of Refugee Services (Field Interview, DRS Representative, 24 June 2022). Such initiatives allowed refugee and host communities to better cope with uncertainty and stress.

The respondents added that FBOs played a vital role in fostering peaceful coexistence by organising leadership and conflict resolution training for community leaders. LWF, for instance, provided training on various issues, including effective leadership, respect for human rights, and conflict management.

The findings are consistent with the functionalist theory, indicating that FBOs positively impact the well-being of both refugee and host communities. In sum, FBOs foster harmonious coexistence by acting as mediators, organising leadership and conflict resolution training for community leaders, encouraging cooperation between hosts and refugees, and providing essential services and resources to both populations.

Performance of FBOs in Easing Refugee Pressure

This section examines the perceptions of refugees, refugee protection officers, and community leaders regarding the performance of FBOs in alleviating refugee pressure on host states and communities. It offers a unique opportunity for FBOs to gain insights into how their service delivery partners and the recipients of their services, mainly refugees, view them. Considerable research has been conducted on the perceptions of humanitarian organisations towards refugees and different refugee situations. However, studies focusing on refugees’ perspectives on the effectiveness of humanitarian agencies are limited.

The research adopts the Cambridge Dictionary definition of perception as “a thought, belief or opinion, often held by many people, based on appearances” (Cambridge University Press, 2023). It further posits that perception may not entirely reflect reality but influences reality and provides crucial feedback on the state of things (Estrada, 2020). Essentially, perception is the way we understand reality.

The respondents assessed the performance of FBOs operating within the Kakuma refugee camp, specifically regarding their role in easing refugee pressure on the Kenyan government and host communities. The researchers categorised the evaluations into three groups: below average (indicating that expectations were not fulfilled), average (indicating that expectations were met), and above average (indicating that expectations were surpassed). Although respondents were encouraged to provide justifications for their evaluations and ratings, they could submit ratings without offering explanations.

Most refugee representatives rated the performance of FBOs as above average. None gave a rating of below average. The plausible interpretation is that the refugees recognised and appreciated the services of the FBOs. For instance, the FGD with women refugees rated FBOs’ performance as above average, mainly on account of the vocational training offered by Don Bosco to the youths. They attested that education armed young people with valuable skills that broadened their outlook on life. “Equipping our sons and daughters with skills that empower them economically, socially and intellectually is the best thing that Don Bosco has done for us,” posited one of the female refugee respondents (FGD with women refugees, 30 June 2022).

Similarly, most FBO officers rated the performance of FBOs as above average. A few of them rated their performance as average. One JRS officer justified her average rating of FBOs by stating, “…in recognition that host communities supported refugees even though they were in dire need of help, each refugee-focused project allocates a certain percentage of the assistance to the host community” (Field Interview, JRS Representative, 21 June 2022). Such inclusive policies helped eliminate the hosts’ resentment and envy. Although this seemed a sufficient reason to rate the FBOs’ performance above average, the JRS official used it to justify her average rating.

FBO respondents who gave a rating of above average believed that FBO interventions had significantly reduced the number of conflicts between hosts and refugees. They also commended FBOs for almost exclusively addressing the educational needs of the refugee population. In the words of an FCA Officer, “The contributions of LWF, FCA, and Don Bosco to the educational needs of refugees and hosts are, without a doubt, immeasurable” (Field Interview, FCA Representative, 25 June 2022).

FBO respondents further expressed appreciation for LWF, JRS, and WV International regarding their exceptional child protection programmes. A representative from JRS stated, “These organisations have effectively rescued many children from trafficking and have facilitated their access to educational and vocational training opportunities” (Field Interview, JRS Representative, 21 June 2022). Odhiambo (2022) agrees that the safeguarding of children's rights is a critical contribution to the well-being of refugees in Kakuma, as the camp houses over 111,000 children whose rights and freedoms are at risk of being violated.

The FBO respondents explained that WV focused on enhancing pre-primary school programmes by equipping parents and caregivers with the skills to provide their children with proper parental care. They commended JRS for protecting and caring for children with disabilities and offering psychosocial support. Some pointed out that WV had significantly contributed to easing the pressure on the Kenyan government by fostering resilience and promoting proper nutrition through food assistance. “World Vision is the world's largest implementing partner of the United Nations World Food Programme, and its contribution to the livelihoods of refugees in the Kakuma refugee camp is undisputed,” asserted an officer working with NCCK (Field Interview, NCCK Representative, 15 June 2022).

Comparatively, most respondents from UNHCR and DRS rated FBO performance as above average. Nevertheless, there was a consensus among them that, “…despite the significant role played by FBOs in alleviating the challenges faced by refugees, a sense of distress persisted within the camps” (Field Interview, AIC-HM Representative, 16 June 2022).

They believed that resource limitation is the primary obstacle to fully transforming the lives of refugees. Sulewski (2020) shares this view, arguing that, despite substantial efforts to enhance the effectiveness of responses, the international humanitarian system is overwhelmed, lacking adequate funding and struggling to manage simultaneous crises worldwide.

Nearly all respondents working with SNGOs rated the performance of FBOs as above average. Given the limited resources of the FBOs, the respondents believed that the FBOs achieved more than anticipated. Furthermore, none of them rated the performance as below average. This evaluation was generous, mainly due to the prevalent assumption that secular and faith-based organisations typically compete with one another (Ferris, 2017).

In contrast to other informants, who predominantly provided above-average ratings, most community and religious leaders assessed FBO performance as average. This was surprising, particularly since literature indicates that FBOs preferred collaborating with religious leaders and institutions (UNHCR, 2014). The expectation was that these leaders would unanimously rate the contributions of FBOs as above average. A plausible explanation for this deviation in findings could be that the leaders acting as intermediaries between the refugees and FBOs had exceptionally high expectations of the latter. This situation may have arisen from their more profound understanding of the needs of the refugees, leading to the conclusion that the FBOs did not meet the standards anticipated by these leaders.

Conclusion

The research findings indicate that FBOs significantly eased refugee pressure on host states. They accomplished this by assuming some of the government's responsibilities towards the refugees. For instance, they provided refugees with essential amenities such as food, water, education, and healthcare. Additionally, they helped improve security within the camp, primarily by promoting good morals.

Secondly, the findings indicate that FBOs have been instrumental in fostering harmonious relationships between refugees and host communities. The strategies they employed to achieve this included mediation and the provision of essential amenities to refugee and host populations. Their initiatives enhanced the resilience of the refugee and host communities, enabling them to cope better with uncertainty and stress.

Thirdly, the study results reveal that FBOs’ performance towards easing refugee pressure is above average. In other words, FBOs exceeded the expectations of most of the refugee-protection stakeholders. Notably, the most significant setback to the performance of FBOs was the large number of refugees compared to the limited resources available.

The empirical results of the study correlate remarkably with the theory of functionalism. Functionalism examines society from the perspective of the roles played by its various components. Functionalists argue that religion plays a distinct and vital role in maintaining social order and cohesion, regulating moral behaviour, providing insight into existential questions, bestowing individuals with a sense of meaning, and serving as a helpful tool for adjustment during challenging situations (Ormerod, 2019). The findings confirmed that religion has indeed fulfilled these tasks in the context of refugee protection, albeit via FBOs.

The article recommends that FBOs continue advocating for the rights of the refugee community, as both refugees and refugee-protection actors highly value their efforts. FBOs should also collaborate closely with community and religious leaders to be more effective. Similarly, the article encourages other refugee-protection actors and host states to support FBOs, as their contribution to refugee protection is both critical and unique. It urges donors and funders already supporting FBOs to strengthen their commitment, given that the primary obstacle facing FBOs is a lack of adequate resources.

For future research, this study first recommends examining the role of FBOs in easing refugee pressure in urban environments. Similarly, it encourages further research in refugee camps in other countries, given that the refugee circumstances in these regions may differ considerably from those in Kenya. Additionally, the study recommends investigating the contributions of FBOs towards the remaining three objectives of the Global Compact on Refugees. These are enhancing refugee self-reliance, expanding access to third-country solutions, and supporting conditions in countries of origin for safe and dignified return. Lastly, the study suggests conducting research in camps with non-Christian FBOs because every FBO in Kakuma Refugee Camp was Christian.

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Table 1.

Details of Research Respondents.

Respondents’ description	Data collection technique	Respondents sampled
FBO officials	Key informant interviews	15
UNHCR officials	Key informant interviews	3
Secular NGO officials	Key informant interviews	5
Department of refugee services officials	Key informant interviews	4
Religious and community leaders	Key informant interviews	7
Refugees	Focus group discussions	50
Total number of respondents		84