The Origin and Evolution of the Bow

Origins

The earliest bowed instruments date back to the tenth century and appeared in Central Asia. Expansion of Arabian culture through Central Asia and the Middle East into European territories influenced changes in the bow such as hair and sizes. Until the early 1600s, bows had a wide variety of sizes and shapes. The hair of the bow was attached directly to the wooden stick, lacking any gripping device or frog. The tension of the hair was less than that of today’s bows and this resulted in less grip of the hair on the string of the instrument. The curvature of the bow was diverse and undefined. Some bows had a large curvature, while others had hardly any curvature at all. The bows of the eleventh century were about 20 to 30 cm long. This length did not allow a great variety in the interpretation of the music, and the player could only make short movements with the bow (Bachmann et al. 2001).

Standardization of Bows

Over the centuries, there was a standardization of the shape and length of bows. In the Late Middle Ages, the length of the bow increased to 50 to 80 cm, depending also on the type of instrument (e.g., rebec, vielle, or Byzantine lira). The player had to grasp not only the stick but also the hair. Using this method, the player increased or decreased the tension of the hair as needed. Bows that had little curvature required a small piece of wood to be inserted at the frog, in order to increase the distance between the stick and the hair. Another method was for the performers to insert their fingers between the stick and the hair at the frog. In the fourteenth century, players usually held the bow with the closed fist; this playing technique prevented the wrist from being completely relaxed, as the wrist lost flexibility and relaxation. Beginning in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, there were illustrations in which the performers started to hold the bow with their thumb and fingertips. In the sixteenth century, there was a standardization of the grip of the bow, only the fingers were in contact with the stick, and two methods of bow technique are differentiated: over-hand and under-hand.

“A better aw are ness of the origins and evolutions of the bow will allow all players to understand how the modifications to the bow have changed technique and pedagogy over time.”

The Bow from the Seventeenth Century to the Middle of the Eighteenth Century

The violinist Michel Woldemar (1750–1815) in his Méthode pour le violon (c. 1798) described the different bow models developed in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Woldemar differentiated four models: short model (Corelli), long model (Tartini), transitional model (Cramer), and Tourte model. This differentiation does not mean that only these models existed, but it offers the first explanation of the primary models in use. From 1625 onward, players required a heavier bow that would articulate more clearly and have greater sonority to play the dance music.

With the short model, the hair was attached to the tip of the bow and the other end was held by the hand. Later, the tip of the bow had more volume and a small rectangular or trapezoidal gap was made where hair was inserted. Later, the frog was developed and wooden pieces were inserted between the frog and the hair.

In the mid-seventeenth century, wooden pieces were inserted between the frog and the hair; these pieces helped to gain height between the hair and the stick. The players had different sized wooden pieces depending on the degree of tension required by the music. This new system allowed the musician to have more flexibility in the hand. Later, the system was improved and a frog was created which allowed the tension to be regulated. The frog had a brake system that tightened the hairs and prevented them from losing tension, using a ratchet at the end of the bow. Performers such as Locatelli or Corelli were known to use this model of bow.

Due to the shape of the tip imitating the head of a pike fish, the hair was very close to the wood and the wood rubbed against the string. This situation caused a lack of control when played in the upper part of the bow. To solve this problem, a small outward curvature with a convex shape was added to the stick. This caused the length of the bow to increase, giving player greater flexibility. Consequently, this model of bow became the most popular until 1720.

Beginning in 1720 and primarily due to the demands of the cantabile style of Italian music, a new type of bow known as the longbow or Tartini model was created. The length of the stick and the hair increased to 71 cm. This helped to play a sound effect called “messa di voce,” which started by playing the note soft at the frog, adding more sound in the middle of the bow and again soft sound when the player approached the tip. The new length made the bows more sensitive to changes in humidity. Throughout the first half of the eighteenth century, various bow models coexisted. Great performers such as Locatelli, Corelli, or Somis preferred the short bows, perhaps due to the quick attack and ease of interpretation compared with the long model. Other soloists such as J.-M. Leclaire or J.M. Veracini opted for the long model.

The Transitional Bow

Around 1740, two systems of frog still coexisted, one with movable wooden pieces and the other with a ratchet system. Both models of frog required a simpler tensioning of the hair. Therefore, a frog was created that was tightened with an internal screw. In 1769, the German violinist Wilhelm Cramer (1746–1799) presented a new bow model known as transitional bow or Cramer bow in Paris. This new model became very popular among performers and amateurs (Köpp 2015). It was able to satisfy the musical needs of the new classical interpretative style, the music of the Mannheim school, F.J. Haydn, C.P. E. Bach, W.A. Mozart, and C.W. Gluck.

The main characteristic of Cramer’s model was the tip, which was robust with a “battle-axe” shaped head. Cramer modified the curvature and created the concave stick. This achieved greater separation both at the frog and at the tip (Bachmann et al. 2001). The bows gradually became longer, heavier, and with a greater number of hairs. The woods used were pernambuco for its lightness and ironwood for its low stiffness. Both woods were ideal for concave bending and were also cheaper than other woods used previously.

The Tourte Model

In 1785, the French bowmaker François Xavier Tourte “the Younger” (1748–1835) created a new bow model that achieved rapid popularity. He is considered the most important figure in the evolution of the string bow. This new bow became an important model from its birth and is still used today. The new interpretive musical style and the development of more difficult technique lead Tourte to the creation of the new model. Tourte came from a family of bowmakers. He worked for several years as a watchmaker, and he incorporated his knowledge and skills of both wood and metal when developing his bow (Dilworth 2006). The craftsmanship, detail and exquisite workmanship were recognized in his bows, even though he did not leave his name on them. Virtuosos such as Pierre Rode, Louis Spohr, J. L. Duport, and B. Romberg praised Tourte’s bows for their ease of handling, balance, and straightness (see Figure 1). They also recommended the Tourte bow to their students (Walden 2006).

OPEN IN VIEWER

Figure 1.

Cello bow made by Tourte.

The Tourte model began with the transitional bow and kept the concave curve. However, Tourte added other innovations that provided greater elasticity, lightness, straightness, and greater volume in the tip as well as using precious materials at both the tip and frog. The cello bow measured 72 to 73 cm and 74 to 75 cm for the violin. Tourte bows were characterized by an octagonal or round stick. There were several periods in the Tourte models, with the golden period being between the 1800s and 1820s (Oxley 2017). The wood used for the stick was pernambuco due to its strength and flexibility.

The curve of the stick continued to be concave due to the improved control of the sound and the bounce of the hair. Tourte made the curvature of the arch by applying heat and bending the stick while the wood was hot, a process still used today. Tourte increased the number of hair up to 200 (Bachmann et al. 2001). He added a silver or even gold festoon at the frog to align the hair.

The tip of this later Tourte model had a shape of axe head to which he added an ivory plate to protect the wood from contact with the hair. As the axe head and the ivory plate added more weight at the tip, Tourte also added a metal plate under the frog. He used valuable materials such as gold or silver, for the eye of the frog and he used pearl and even tortoise shell for the frog. All these materials and his innovations demonstrated Tourte’s attention to detail and the development of a bow model that could meet the performance needs of the time.

Tourte is considered the Stradivarius of the bow; however, other French builders stand out, such as Étienne Pajeot. Pajeot was an important representative of the Mirecourt school. His innovations are primarily the frog and the use of metals. D. Peccatte, J.-B. Vuillaume, and F. Lupot also stand out in France, whereas in London, the Tubbs and Dodds families stand out.

The Modern Bow

The modern bow is a copy of the model created by Tourte, but there have been advances in some of the materials used in its manufacture. Today we can distinguish the following standardized parts of a modern bow.

The stick of the bow is usually made of pernambuco wood, which is tough, hard, and flexible, characterized by its reddish color. The stick is still bent by heating the stick and bending it with the heat. The quality of a bow depends to a large extent on the skills and qualities of the bowmaker. The shape of the modern stick can be octagonal, round or a combination of both. The length of the violin bow is around 75 cm and the weight between 60 and 63 grams. The length of the viola bow is around 74 cm and the weight between 70 and 73 grams. The length of the cello bow is around 72 cm and the weight between 80 and 86 grams.

The tip of the bow can have different shapes such as a swan’s beak or an axe head. The lower part of the tip is covered by a small plate of ivory or bone. This plate has the function of protecting the wood and the end of the hair from possible blows. The tip has a small rectangular or trapezoidal-shaped indentation or mortise into which the hair is inserted, then a piece of wood of the same shape is inserted under pressure to hold the hair in place.

The frog of the bow is rectangular in shape and the most commonly used material is ebony. However, in past centuries it was common to find bows made of ivory or tortoise shell. The lower part of the frog has a plate that protects a mortise in which the other end of the hair is placed (see Figure 2). The hair is held by a small piece of wood that is pressed into place. The hair comes out of the frog in an orderly manner due to a metal ferule which places the hair horizontally. The upper part of the frog is formed by a screw which is inserted into the stick.

OPEN IN VIEWER

Figure 2.

Modern bow frog.

The screw is inserted into the end of the stick through a hole which is screwed into the screw eye at the top of the frog. This screw provides a simple and effective tightening system compared with other mechanisms of past centuries. The screw is made of metal, in some cases gold or silver. The hair of the bow is horsehair from cold and extreme climates. The cello bow normally has between 150 and 250 horsehairs, depending on the bowmaker. Nowadays, synthetic materials have been incorporated for the hair due to their low cost.

The leather wrapping is placed at the end of the stick after the frog; it has the function of protecting the wood from sweat and grease of the performer. The bows of the seventeenth and eighteenth century lacked this piece. The wire is a gold or silver metal thread that is twisted along the stick after the leather and has both a protective and decorative function.

Differences between Bows Used as a Tool to Teach Students

The bows described during the Baroque period, short model and long model, are smaller and lighter than the modern bow. Performers of early music play with cleaner articulation due to the length and the shape of the bow. String crossing using a baroque bow is easier than the modern bow. However, the double stops can be more difficult because of the balance and pressure. But because a baroque bow is heavier at the frog and lighter at the tip, it cannot sustain the sound. The diminuendos naturally happen when the player approaches the tip. This bow is ideal for dance music because of the difference between strong and weak accents. Strong beats always fall on down bow, the light beats up bow.

It is important that all players have a better understanding of how the baroque bow is played differently, and the impact these older techniques have on present-day performance of baroque works using a modern bow. Use of a baroque bow helps performers know the way musicians played during that period, especially when considering articulation, sound, and phrasing. There was no standardized way of holding the bow, and this has changed and evolved. However, early music players hold the bow closer to the balance point, which means that the hand moves away from the frog. The fingers are always on the bow, but some players let their fingers touch the hair, even the thumb.

Teachers and performers can encourage the use of the baroque bow as a tool to expand the sound possibilities of the instrument, to better demonstrate the authentic musical characteristics of the time period, and to deepen the player’s understanding of the composer’s wishes. This allows students to develop better as musicians, both in technique and in the musical interpretation.

Conclusion

Over the centuries, the bow has evolved to adapt to the style of the music and the demands of the performers. From the first bows characterized by the grip of the hair on the stick to the modern bow, there has been a process of improvement. The bows of the seventeenth and early eighteenth century were lighter, less flexible, and produced a more natural sound. The stick has evolved to have more length, and the tip and the frog added more weight. The curve developed to be concave; pernambuco has been the most used wood for the bowmakers due to its strength, toughness, and flexibility. The current model imitates the Tourte model, which is characterized by its elasticity and sound, and that is why most teachers use this model and also recommend it to their students.