Ethnic Minority Psychological Associations

Abstract

This article provides the introduction, background and rationale for the Major Contribution focused on five national ethnic minority psychological associations: the Asian American Psychological Association, The Association of Black Psychologists, the National Latina/o Psychological Association, the Society of Indian Psychologists, and the Society for the Psychological Study of Ethnic Minority Issues (Division 45 of the American Psychological Association). The first five articles focus on each of the five major ethnic minority psychological associations and their relationship to the specialty of counseling psychology in general and, more specifically, to the largest professional organization of counseling psychologists, the Society of Counseling Psychology, Division 17 of the American Psychological Association. In the final article, we summarize general trends and make recommendations. In this introductory article, we (a) describe our rationale for the Major Contribution, (b) provide a brief history of counseling psychology’s growing commitment to an inclusive multicultural psychology, and (c) conclude with a brief description of the articles and authors included in the Major Contribution.

Keywords

multiculturalism social justice race/ethnicity

The purpose of this Major Contribution is to provide a brief history, the development and accomplishments of five major national ethnic minority psychology associations (EMPAs), their contributions to the development of a multiculturally inclusive psychology, and the leadership roles that counseling psychologists have played in the development and success of these EMPAs. A second focus of this Major Contribution is to describe the EMPAs’ relationship to the specialty of counseling psychology and to the major professional organization of counseling psychologists, the Society of Counseling Psychology (SCP), Division 17 of the American Psychological Association. The five major EMPAs featured with articles in this Major Contribution are: the Asian American Psychological Association (AAPA), The Association of Black Psychologists (ABPsi), the National Latina/o Psychological Association (NLPA), the Society of Indian Psychologists (SIP), and the Society for the Psychological Study of Ethnic Minority Issues (Division 45 of the American Psychological Association). These EMPAs formed in the late 1960s and early 1970s and have a 40-year-plus history of existence. ABPsi was founded in 1968; the Association of Psychologists por la Raza, a precursor to NLPA, was founded in 1970; AAPA was founded in 1972; SIP was founded 1973; and Division 45 was founded in 1986 (Pickren, 2004).

The initial impetus for this Major Contribution was a symposium (Forrest et al., 2008) focused on EMPAs held at the 2008 International Counseling Psychology Conference. Linda Forrest, president of SCP at the time of the conference, organized a symposium focused on the EMPAs as part of her presidential programming. Her intent was to (a) provide a format for reaching more students and early career psychologists about the mission and accomplishments of the EMPAs, (b) create an organizational space to support EMPAs’ membership recruitment, (c) open a dialogue about the intersection of domestic multicultural and international cross-cultural perspectives, and (d) build stronger relationships between the EMPAs and SCP. Presidents of the five major EMPAs (or their representative) presented the history of their organizations, the current status and priorities of the organizations, and a description of the contributions by counseling psychologists to their associations. The presenters were Alvin Alvarez, then president of AAPA; Joseph White, cofounder of ABPsi; Edward Delgado-Romero, then president-elect of NLPA; Manny Casas, then president-elect of Division 45; and Teresa LaFromboise, a past president of SIP. During the discussion, students indicated they were not receiving information about EMPAs in their programs; they had questions about the associations and their relationships to the SCP; and many present sought career advice about the benefits and challenges of balancing involvement in an EMPA and/or SCP. Discussions among presenters after the symposium focused on the lack of official connections between EMPAs and SCP. This Major Contribution was a logical extension of the spirited audience response to the symposium presentations and the belief among presenters that the specialty of counseling psychology might benefit from a more organized and official relationship between the five EMPAs and SCP.

The goal of this Major Contribution is to record for posterity brief histories of the EMPAs, with a counseling psychology focus. We hope that the information contained in these articles will fill a gap in counseling psychologists’ knowledge base about the ethnic minority professional associations that have fueled and supported students and psychologists of color for more than 40 years and their substantial work to make psychology a more culturally inclusive discipline.

In this introduction, we begin by describing reasons why a Major Contribution of this nature is important. Next we provide a brief overview of the historical context of counseling psychology and the specialty’s relationship to diversity and inclusion. We end with descriptions of the articles and authors.

Rationale for Major Contribution

There are five reasons why we believe the content of this Major Contribution is important to capture in The Counseling Psychologist. With this group of articles, we intend to (a) supplement the scarce literature about EMPAs that currently exists, (b) acknowledge the contributions of the five major EMPAs to the development of cultural diversity within the specialty of counseling psychology, (c) recognize EMPAs as strong resources for students and early career psychologists, (d) describe the indigenous perspectives that are embedded in EMPAs’ structures and practices that might be transferable and useful to SCP, and (e) identify possible collaborations between EMPAs and SCP.

Expand Scarce Literature on EMPAs

Currently, the history of EMPAs is an oral and scattered history, reliant on individuals and their stories. Oral narratives are commonplace in indigenous cultures and in the cultures represented by the four ethnic-specific EMPAs (Hodge, Pasqua, Marquez, & Geishirt-Cantrell, 2002). As founders of EMPAs grow older and pass on, as some already have (Padilla & Olmedo, 2009; Trimble & Clearing-Sky, 2009), the initial EMPA histories, especially the histories relevant to counseling psychologists, are vulnerable to being lost. Paradoxically, as the population of students and psychologists of color within counseling psychology grows larger (Moradi & Neimeyer, 2005), maintaining the oral traditions of indigenous cultures as the major source of historical knowledge about EMPAs has become more difficult, resulting in uneven exposure to these important stories. According to Franklin (2009), the emerging generation of psychologists has insufficient knowledge about the history and traditions of ethnic minority psychology—and, we would add, limited knowledge about EMPAs.

In the counseling psychology literature, there is rarely a mention of EMPAs. Informally, we reviewed 25 leading multicultural counseling texts and found only a few scattered references to EMPAs. The limited number of published articles about the history and accomplishments of EMPAs has appeared mostly in EMPA journals (Williams, 1974, 2008) or newsletters (Morales, 2005; Porche-Burke, 1996). In 2009, the Division 45 APA journal, Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology (CDEMP), published a special issue dedicated to the history of ethnic minority psychology (Leong, 2009). Even in these comprehensive reviews, most authors only briefly mentioned their EMPAs as part of the larger history of their ethnic minority psychology group. In Trimble and Clearing-Sky’s (2009) history of American Indian and Alaskan Native psychology, SIP is described in five paragraphs. In their historical review of Asian American psychology, Leong and Okazaki (2009) provided a three-paragraph description of the AAPA. Padilla and Olmedo’s history of Latino psychology (2009) offered two paragraphs describing the NLPA precursor organization, the National Hispanic Psychology Association. In contrast, Holliday (2009) provided extensive coverage of ABPsi’s history, development, and accomplishments in her review article of African American psychology. Even though ABPsi, Division 45, and AAPA have taken the initiative to provide some documentation of their histories in their respective journals and handbooks, there is very little about EMPAs’ histories in the mainstream psychology literature. Whereas the articles in the special issue of CDEMP provided a broad history of ethnic minority psychology with very limited coverage of EMPAs, the articles in this Major Contribution will focus specifically on five major EMPAs, their histories and the accomplishments, and their connections to the specialty of counseling psychology and specifically to SCP.

Acknowledge EMPAs’ Contributions

The articles in this Major Contribution provide a sense of the presence and accomplishments of the five major EMPAs and their substantial influence on the growth of multicultural perspectives in counseling psychology and psychology in general. The articles in the Major Contribution document EMPAs as supportive and nurturing places for many psychologists of color in the midst of what S. Sue (2009) described as ethnocentricism, institutional racism, discrimination, and underrepresentation in their work environments. Without a supportive place where one’s perspectives and work are affirmed and valued, the pipeline of psychologists of color in 2011 might be much more constricted. We believe that EMPAs have been launching pads for many psychologists of color and their work, resulting in a substantial increase in the cultural diversity in research, education and training, psychological practice, community service, and public policy. The richness of these historical and current accounts of the five major EMPAs described in this Major Contribution have the potential to expand, enrich, and strengthen counseling psychology’s history and strong commitment to diversity, multicultural inclusion, and social justice (Goodman et al., 2004; Miville et al., 2009; Moradi & Neimeyer, 2005; Wrenn, 1962). Also, the involvement of counseling psychologists in the early development of EMPAs, their service as EMPA leaders, and their leadership in SCP make this history a particularly important one to document for counseling psychologists.

Recognize EMPAs as Resource for Students and Pipeline for Counseling Psychology

Historically, the leaders of EMPAs have given substantial attention to students of color by creating student circles/committees (see, e.g., Obasi, Speight, Rowe, Clark, & Turner-Essel, 2012) and to early career psychologists through networking opportunities, mentoring projects, and professional support for presenting at professional conferences and publishing in journals supportive of ethnic minority topics and content. EMPAs also provide a place for students pursuing careers in psychology as well as early career psychologists to express their frustrations, receive support, and develop healthy coping strategies for dealing with the demands and difficulties associated with graduate school that can include experiences of interpersonal and institutional racism, prejudice, discrimination, and daily microaggressions. Also, students and early career psychologists are able to network with leaders in the field of multicultural psychology and hear their personal stories about challenges and successes that provide guidance, inspiration, and hope (e.g., Cruz-Santiago, 2009; Lim, 2009). The specialness of these encounters provides motivation for students and early career psychologists who may be struggling to be seen and heard in their home program, especially if they are the only ones from their ethnic background. Having strong support for their professional development from an EMPA allows students of color to build self confidence, remain in school, finish their degrees, and be productive during and after graduate school—resulting in a stronger pipeline of psychologists of color (APA, 1996; Atkinson, Brown, Casas, & Zane, 1996; Atkinson, Neville, & Casas, 1991). We also believe that involvement in EMPAs is relevant to the development of White students’ multicultural competence. Attending and presenting at EMPA conferences, networking with other students and psychologists of color will provide for White students a lived experience of other cultures as well as exposure to the latest research and practice with specific ethnic populations. Such experiences would be especially valuable for White students who have lived and currently study in predominantly White environments.

How do students of color and early career psychologists find their EMPA and access their resources? Given the scarcity of information available from mainstream outlets, some counseling psychologists might view EMPAs as exclusionary, out of the mainstream, and perhaps even discriminatory. Students of color may not be directed toward the EMPAs as a legitimate professional resource. Psychologists of color who are active in EMPAs are able to provide students and early career psychologists of color with early entry into an EMPA and access to the many benefits they offer. Psychologists who are not well informed about the EMPAs are not able to provide accurate descriptions of these professional organizations and the substantial opportunities they provide students of color and early career psychologists. Consequently, many may have to find EMPAs on their own (e.g., the internet) or by word of mouth. For some students, self-discovery of EMPAs late in their graduate programs or as early career psychologists may cause them to question their faculty’s commitment to diversity and inclusiveness. For nonethnic minority students with research interests in ethnic minority psychology, there may be added obstacles to finding, being introduced, or mentored into EMPAs. Providing a published source of information about these five EMPAs in a widely circulated counseling psychology journal like The Counseling Psychologist will expose those who are not familiar with EMPAs to the professional and personal opportunities they offer. Also, the articles in this Major Contributions will provide faculty with an excellent resource for exposing all students to the benefits of being a member of an EMPA. We hope to stimulate and increase early and active involvement in these professional associations.

Describe Indigenous Perspectives

The indigenous psychologies have had an opportunity to experience fertile ground within EMPAs and have blossomed and grown in these organizational environments that are much more collectivist than traditional psychology organizations. The articles in this Major Contribution describe indigenous practices and unique cultural contributions that have resulted in differences across the five EMPAs. The articles describe both convergent and divergent origins and decisions unique to each EMPA, some of which are articulated as being embedded in indigenous aspects of their culture. For example, in the SIP article (Gray, Carter, LaFromboise, & BigFoot, 2012), the authors note that they consulted elders who cautioned against naming individuals who were key leaders in the organization in the article, because it was not congruent with their collectivist culture. Another example is ABPsi’s efforts to maintain an organization separate from APA “using African philosophy to serve as the foundation for an African psychology that is rooted in the experience of African people” (Obasi et al., 2012, p. 659).

Until this point, indigenous practices and potential benefits to the SCP organizational structures have not been directly articulated. The brief histories of the five major EMPAs recorded in a linked manner within this Major Contribution provide an opportunity to learn more about specific indigenous cultural traditions that are wrapped into an EMPA’s organizational structure, association priorities, and community connections. An increased knowledge about these indigenous traditions will provide counseling psychologists and SCP leaders with ways to understand and perhaps create more inclusive professional and organizational culture within SCP.

The ability of EMPAs to work collaboratively together, despite diverse and sometimes opposing views, both within and between groups, provides an excellent example for other professional organizations about how to attend to diverse perspectives and create inclusive organizational environments. The articles in this Major Contribution are a good reference for potential ways APA, other APA divisions, and other counseling or psychology organizations (e.g., Council of Counseling Psychology Training Programs, Association of Counseling Center Training Agencies) can be influenced by the indigenous practices and structures of EMPAs.

Identify Possible Collaborations Between EMPAs and SCP

Finally many of the articles in this Major Contribution call for developing more systematic and official organizational connections between the five major EMPAs and the SCP. Much to our surprise, we were unable to document any official collaboration between the SCP and any of the ethnic specific EMPAs: All of SCP collaborations have occurred with Division 45. One of the benefits of developing this Major Contribution has been that the authors of the articles have identified many new and creative ways that the EMPAs might partner with SCP to accomplish common goals of the organizations.

Historical Context Within Counseling Psychology

Counseling psychology, since its inception, has addressed issues of diversity and inclusion (Wrenn, 1962) and has recognized the person as situated within cultural and situational realities (APA, 1952, 1956). A review of the themes and accomplishments of the national counseling psychology conferences during the years reveals that these foundational values have been increasingly expressed through commitments to multicultural values and social justice work (Forrest, 2010; Fouad et al., 2004; Gelso et al., 1988; Kagan et al., 1988; Meara et al., 1988; Samler, 1964; Thompson & Super, 1964). Moreover, a number of scholars have identified multicultural values as strongly defining the identity of counseling psychology (Heppner, Casas, Carter, & Stone, 2000; Howard, 1992; Ivey, 1979; Packard, 2009). During the years, Division 17 has been an active supporter and sponsor of two national conferences focused on cultural, racial, and ethnic issues: The Winter Roundtable on Cross-Cultural Psychotherapy and Counseling started by Samuel Johnson in 1983 (Carter, 1999) and the National Multicultural Conference and Summit started by four counseling psychologists in 1999 (Bingham, Porché-Burke, James, Sue, & Vasquez, 2002; D. W. Sue, Bingham, Porché-Burke, & Vasquez, 1999). Both of these national conferences were established to create (a) an inviting, welcoming, interpersonally supportive, and multiethnic-focused environment for students and psychologists; and (b) a venue to make visible cutting-edge scholarship on ethnic minority research, teaching, and practice. They have been successful in accomplishing both goals. Counseling psychologists have been active participants in both endeavors since their inception. Thus, we are not surprised that counseling psychologists have played major leadership roles in the development and accomplishments of the EMPAs and that many psychologists of color have made important leadership contributions to SCP.

Although counseling psychology and SCP share important common values with EMPAs, the historical overlap is not entirely positive. Much of disappointment and distrust is captured and passed through oral traditions and consequently is not well documented in the literature. The approval and endorsement of the Multicultural Counseling Competencies (D. W. Sue et al., 1982)¹ provide a good example of the uneven relationship. In 1980, during his Division 17 presidency, Allen Ivey appointed a committee chaired by Derald Wing Sue to develop cross-cultural competencies. The executive board did not endorse their report, although it approved all other reports (Santiago-Rivera, 2009). Psychologists of color serving on the committee and beyond experienced this decision as a lack of support both for ethnic minority psychologists and, more importantly, for the needs of ethnic minority populations served by all psychologists—resulting in far-reaching negative repercussions for the Division (Allen Ivey, personal communication, June 14, 2011). In 1997, executive board minutes captured continued concerns about Division 17’s relationship with psychologists of color, the Division’s attention to multicultural issues, and particularly the lack of endorsement of the Multicultural Counseling Competencies (APA Division 17, 1998; D. W. Sue, Arredondo, & McDavis, 1992). Partial approval of the practice subsection of the Multicultural Competencies occurred in 1998 (APA Division 17, 1999), yet it was not until 1999 that the Division finally endorsed and approved the complete document (APA Division 17, 2000)—almost 20 years after its introduction.

In his response to the special issue of Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology on the history of ethnic minority psychology, S. Sue (2009) invoked the underlying “ties that bind” minority ethnic groups in psychology. These include underrepresentation of ethnic minorities in all scientific and professional levels of psychology, institutional racism and ethnocentrism, and the adverse effects these realities have on ethnic minority populations and psychologists. Although foundational counseling psychology values are quite complementary with the missions and aims of EMPAs both the Division 17’s early history as an organization and counseling psychology as a specialty played some part in historical moments and events that resulted in the need for the emergence and continuation of EMPAs.

Definitions of Terms

Several terms used in the Major Contribution need further explication. We use the terms ethnic minority psychology and counseling psychology to refer to the specialties; they are all-inclusive terms. Although the term ethnic minority psychologist historically has been used to describe individuals who are from racial and ethnic minority groups, we prefer the more current term psychologists of color, for several reasons. Historically, the term ethnic minority was developed to describe individuals from ethnic groups that were in the minority in relationship to the White majority population. Population growth for some ethnic groups changes the constellation of minority in relationship to majority and varies widely depending on location and context. Thus, the term minority in many situations is an inaccurate descriptor, creating confusion or losing meaning. Using the term psychologists of color avoids these problems entirely, while also recognizing the racialized nature of American culture.

Psychologists of color may be a member (or not) of their ethnic group’s professional association, Division 45, and/or SCP. We use the term counseling psychologist to describe individuals who were trained in the specialty of counseling psychology and who identify as counseling psychologists. We also want to distinguish between the specialty of counseling psychology and SCP, the largest professional organization representing counseling psychologists, and to remind readers that not all individuals who were trained as counseling psychologists are members of SCP. The primary focus of this Major Contribution is on the EMPA histories and overlap with SCP as organizations. Given the substantial and crucial overlap between the specialty of counseling psychology and SCP, there may be places in the articles where the terms are used interchangeably.

Given Division 45’s status as a division of the American Psychological Association, we consider it to be an EMPA that falls in a different category than the other EMPAs that are independent from APA, represent specific ethnic groups, and support the personal/professional concerns of their members. Division 45 has a broader focus on all ethnic minority groups and is the home within APA for the psychological study of ethnic minority issues, regardless of one’s racial and ethnic background. We decided to include Division 45 in this Major Contribution for numerous reasons: (a) Division 45 is the home within APA for many students and psychologists of color; (b) given Division 45’s inclusive coverage of racial and ethnic backgrounds, it creates a place for biracial and multiracial psychologists; (c) like the other EMPAs, Division 45 is a member of the Council of National Psychological Associations for the Advancement of Ethnic Minority Interests (CNPAAEMI; APA, 2009); and (d) Division 45 shares similar mission and goals with the other major EMPAs.

Description of Articles and Authors

A team of authors who are counseling psychologists and members of one or more EMPA wrote each article. Each team included a current or former president of the association, an early career psychologist, and a graduate student(s). Views of each EMPA from the diverse perspectives, based on differences in stage of professional development and power within the organization, as well as different cohort points of view provide a rich context for each article.

Each article follows a predefined format, but the authors were free to approach the task from culturally consistent positions. Articles start with a brief history of the association, followed by a description of its mission, current structures, resources, and priorities. Authors were asked to describe the roles counseling psychologists have played in the formation, development, and maintenance of their association, as well as their association’s connections with the Society of Counseling Psychology in terms of shared values and joint efforts. Finally, authors were asked to address future directions including potential collaborations between their organization, other EMPAs, and SCP.

The authors of the article on AAPA were Alvin Alvarez, Anneliese Singh, and Jenny Wu. The authors of the article on ABPsi were Ezemenari Obasi, Suzette Speight, Taasogle Daryl Rowe, LeOndra Clark, and Laura Turner-Essel. The authors of the article describing the history and accomplishments of NLPA were Shannon Chavez-Korell, Edward Delgado-Romero, and Roseanne Illes. Jacqueline Gray, Paula Carter, Teresa LaFromboise, and Dolores Subia BigFoot authored the article on SIP. The authors of the article on the Division 45, Society for the Psychological Study of Ethnic Minority Issues were Eduardo Morales, Michael Lau, and Andrea Ballesteros. Finally, the last article in the Major Contribution was authored by Michael Lau, Linda Forrest, and Edward Delgado-Romero and offers a set of recommendations for how to create stronger connections between the ethnic minority psychology associations and the Society of Counseling Psychology.

Since the inception of the EMPAs in the late 1960s and early 1970s there has been uneven progress in integrating multicultural psychology into the mainstream of psychology. Interest in multicultural issues reached a peak in psychology in 1999 with the election of a counseling psychologist of color, Richard Suinn, as APA president and the prominent diversity focus to his presidency. His election was accompanied by the election of additional counseling psychologists of color as presidents of three APA Divisions (Rosie Bingham, Division 17; Melba Vasquez, Division 35; and Derald Wing Sue, Division 45) and their joint presidential project, the establishment of the first National Multicultural Summit and Conference. The year 2011 marks another advancement with the election of another counseling psychologist of color, Melba Vasquez, as APA president (also the first woman of color and first Latina to be President of APA). Our hope is that the articles in this Major Contribution will create greater integration of ethnic psychology into the center of counseling psychology by inspiring greater knowledge and involvement by more counseling psychologists in the EMPAs. Similarly, we hope that these articles will generate greater interest among leaders of the EMPAs and SCP to create stronger collaborations by identifying and supporting bidirectional influences, reciprocal connections, joint projects, and partnerships, all with the goal of making counseling psychology and psychology more broadly inclusive disciplines and professions.

Footnotes

For full appreciation of the issues addressed, this article is best read in combination with the six other articles in this special issue on the relationship between the five major ethnic minority psychological associations and the Society of Counseling Psychology (Alvarez, Singh, & Wu, 2012; Chavez-Korell, Delgado-Romero, & Illes, 2012; Gray, Carter, LaFromboise, & BigFoot, 2012; Lau, Forrest, & Delgado-Romero, 2012; Morales, Lau, & Ballesteros, 2012; Obasi, Speight, Rowe, Clark, & Turner-Essel, 2012).

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Notes

Bios

Edward A. Delgado-Romero is a professor in the Department of Counseling and Human Development Services in the College of Education of the University of Georgia. He is the president of the National Latina/o Psychological Association.

Linda Forrest is the Associate Director for Faculty Outreach for the Center on Diversity and Community (CoDaC) and a professor in Counseling Psychology and Human Services at the University of Oregon. She is the Chair of the APA Ethics Committee and a former president of SCP.

Michael Y. Lau is an assistant professor in Counseling Psychology at Teachers College, Columbia University.

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