Historical Origins and Development of the Eritrean Problem 1889–1962

When the British invaded Habesha in 1867–68, Kasa gave the enemy both moral and material support. He ordered the Tigrean peasants to help the British in food supply and transportation. On one occasion, for example, the British invaders were able to buy the following:

Bread, 29,375 lbs.; 221,334 lbs.; grain 86,891 lbs.; hay 135,000 lbs.; firewood 30,300 lbs.; sundries 14,700 lbs.; 50 bullocks and 1,500 sheep ( Wylde A. B. , Modern Abyssinia, London, 1901, p. 19).

In return, the British rewarded Kasa with the following:

Six mortars, 200 rounds of ammunition and six howitzers with 50 rounds of ammunition apiece, 725 muskets with bayonets, 130 rifles, 354,230 rounds of small arms ammunition, 28 barrels of gunpowder and 585,480 percussion caps as well as many horses and mules, much superfluous baggage and various items of food and clothing ( Pankhurst R. , “Firearms in Ethiopian History,” Ethiopia Observer, Vol. 7, 2 (1962), pp. 146–47).

Marcus G. H. , An Introduction to the Life of Emperor Menelik II of Shoa and Ethiopia, 1844–1913 (unpublished and undated Xeroxed typescript, Mooreland Room, Howard University), p. 13.

Guebre-Sellassie , Chronique de Menelik II , 2 Vols. (Paris, 1830), I, p. 119, N. 3; Giyorgis Atma , History of the Galla , 2 Vols. (unpublished and undated M.S., Addis Ababa: Main Library, HSIU, II, p. 40. In this paper this work is cited as Atma , Galla.

Atma , Galla, II, p. 40.

Guebre-Sellassie , Chronique, I, p. 119, Notes 1, 2.

Atma , Galla, II, p. 41.

Ibid.

Guebre-Sellassie Zewde , “The Process of Re-Unification of the Ethiopian Empire, 1868–1889” (unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation, Oxford University, 1971), p. 198.

Wylde A. B. , ‘83 to '87 in the Soudan, 2 Vols. (New York: Negro University Press, 1969), I, pp. 324–25; Jesman C. , The Russians in Ethiopia (London, 1958), p. 51.

Atma , Galla, II, p. 40.

Ibid., pp. 40–41.

Documented related to King Menelik's relation with Egypt, 1875–1876, in Zewde , “Reunification,” p. 566. From Emperor Menelik to Khedive Ismail, Woreilu, April, 1875.

Atma , Galla II, p. 41.

Dye W. , Moslem Egypt and Christian Abyssinia (New York: Negro University Press, 1969), pp. 435, 143–44.

Ibid., p. 394.

Ibid., p. 452. According to Dye, after the first battle, Yohannes rejected his council's suggestion to advance to seize Massawa from the enemy (Ibid., p. 146).

Atma , Galla, II, p. 41.

Ibid.

Ibid.

Ibid., p. 42.

Dye said that Menelik led this expedition to Begamdir after he heard rumors that Yohannes was defeated by the Egyptians in March, 1876 (Dye, op. cit., p. 455); while Marcus suggested that Menelik might know the facts about the war by January, 1877 but yet he led the expedition in order to incite popular rise against Yohannes (Marcus, Menelik, op. cit., p. 23, N. 54). However, neither Dye nor Marcus had access to circumstantial and chronological details given above. Events and circumstances given by Atma acted against Menelik to lead this invasion before January, 1877. Moreover, according to Atma, Menelik did know facts about the results of the war between Yohannes and the Egyptians. But he overestimated his own strength until he discovered the huge amount of firearms at Yohannes' disposal after the latter defeated the Egyptians ( Atma , op. cit., pp. 41–42).

Atma , Galla, II, p. 42.

Ibid., pp. 42–43.

Ibid., p. 46.

Ibid., p. 45.

Ibid.

Zewde , “Reunification,” pp. 205–06.

Marcus , Menelik, pp. 25–26.

“Copy of Treaty Between King Johannes, King of Kings of Ethiopia and Menelik, King of Shoa,” in Wylde A. B. , Modern Abyssinia, p. 471.

Marcus , Menelik, pp. 24–25; Caulk R. , “Religion and the State in the Nineteenth Century Ethiopia,” JES, Vol. X, 1 (1972), p. 24.

Dye , Egypt and Abyssinia, p. 453; Wylde , Soudan, pp. 331–32.

“Treaty Between Great Britain, Egypt, and Abyssinia. Signed at Adowa, June 3, 1884,” reproduced in Wylde A. , '83 to '87 in the Soudan, pp. 304–06.

Pankhurst R. , “Ethiopia and the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden Ports in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries, EO, Vol. 8, 1 (1964), p. 76.

Ibid., p. 72.

Ibid.

Ibid., p. 72.

Ibid., pp. 79–80.

Portal G. , My Mission to Abyssinia (New York: Negro University Press, 1969), p. 5.

Ibid., p. 8.

Ibid., pp. 25–26.

Ibid., p. 81.

Ibid., p. 158.

Budge E. , A History of Ethiopia (The Netherlands: Anthropological Publications, 1966), p. 526.

Caulk R. , “The Occupation of Harar: January 1887,” JES, Vol. 9, 2 (1971), p. 17.

“Document related to King Menelik's relation with Italy, 1887 to 1889,” in Zwede , “Re-Unification,” p. 601, Letter from King Menelik to King Umberto I, Entoto, July 6, 1888.

Ibid., pp. 573–74. Contract between Count Pietro Antonelli and Menelik, King of Shoa, for the provision of arms, Entoto, October 25, 1887.

Ibid., p. 586, Antonelli to Crispi, Ankobar, May 16, 1888.

Wylde , Modern Abyssinia, p. 35; Holt P. , The Mahdist State in the Sudan (London: Oxford, 1970), p. 68.

Mekouria Tekle S. , History of Ethiopia from Tewodros to Haile Sellassie (Addis Ababa: Giyorgis Press, 1968), p. 63.

Holt , The Mahdist State, p. 172; Mekouria , History of Ethiopia, p. 62.

Zewde , “Re-Unification,” pp. 524–25.

“Document related to King Menelik's Relation with Italy 1887 to 1889,” p. 588, Antonelli to Crispi, Let-Marefia, May 22, 1888.

Ibid.

Zewde , “Re-Unification,” pp. 528–30.

“Document–King Menelik—Italy,” pp. 588–89; Antonelli to Crispi, Let-Marefia, May 22, 1888.

Ibid., p. 596, Antonelli to Crispi; Aden, August 8, 1888.

Atma , Galla, II, p. 75.

Ibid.

Document–Menelik–Italy, p. 597, Tekle Haimanot to Count Antonelli, June 16, 1888.

Here , Menelik is referring to the Italian invaders massacred by Ras Alula on January 26, 1887 at Dogali. See No. 39 above.

Document, pp. 601–02, Letter from King Menelik to King Umberto I, Entoto, July 6, 1888.

Ibid., p. 612, Crispi to Menelik, Torino, September 12, 1888.

Ibid., p. 625, King Menelik to King Umberto, Addis Ababa, February 20, 1889.

Ibid., p. 615, From Menelik to Crispi, Entoto, October 23, 1888.

“Correspondence between Emperor Yohannes, Ras Darge and Menelik: In Zewde, “Re-Unification,” op. cit., p. 635, from King Menelik to Emperor Yohannes, Entoto, December 23, 1888.

“Document… Menelik-Italy,” p. 629, Menelik II to Umberto I, Ghidim, March 26, 1889.

Atma , Galla, II, p. 72.

Pankhurst R. , “Ras Alula in Italy: The Novel of Luigi Gualtieri and the play of A. Castelletto,” EO, Vol. 15, 3 (1972), pp. 170–172, 173–95. According to Atma, after the fall of Yohannes, Menelik and Tekle Haimanot in their conspiracy against the Emperor in June, 1888, as his governor of Tigrai. Accordingly, Siyum seized the Tigrai from his cousin, Ras Mengesha, by the force of arms. However, Ras Alula fought and defeated Siyum and gave back the country to Ras Mengesha ( Atma , Galla, II, pp. 75–76), while Menelik was still consolidating his position in the Amhara area of the highlands.

Rubenson S. , “The protectorate paragraph of the Wuchale Treaty,” Journal of African History, Vol. 5, 2 (1964), p. 261. In this article the author suggested that Menelik had very little need of the Italians in May, 1889 against Ras Mengesha and Ras Alula (ibid., p. 278). This argument, however, did not explain Menelik's need of the Italians to invade and seize the Tigrai in January, 1890 ( Berkeley G. F. , The Campaign of Adowa and the Rise of Menelik, New York: Negro University Press, 1969, pp. 26–27).

Berkeley, Adowa and Menelik, pp. 26–27.

Atma , Galla, II, p. 76.

Atma , Galla, II, p. 73.

Ibid.

Pankhurst R. , “The Great Ethiopian Famine of 1888–1892: A New Assessment,” Journal of the History of Medicine, Vol. 23 (1966), p. 100.

Guebre-Sellassie , Chronique, I, p. 319, N. 1.

Atma , Galla, II, p. 73.

Ibid., p. 77.

Guebre-Sellassie , Chronique, I, pp. 296–97.

Ibid., p. 296.

Guebre-Sellassie , Tarik Zedagmaw Menelik, the Amharic edition of Menelik's Chronicle (Addis Ababa, Artistic Press, 1966), p. 177.

Ibid., p. 179; Atma , Galla, II, p. 77.

Guebre-Sellassie , Chronique, II, p. 488.

Ibid., p. 306, No. 11, Guebre-Sellassie , Tarik, p. 181.

Atma , Galla, II, p. 77.

Ibid., Guebre-Sellassie , Tarik, pp. 181–82.

Atma , Galla, II, p. 77.

Ibid., Guebre-Sellassie, Tarik, p. 183.

Atma , Galla, II, p. 77; Guebre-Sellassie , Chronique, I, pp. 306–7, No. 3.

Atma , Galla, II, p. 77; Vanderheym J. , Une Expedition Avec le Nigus Menelik (Paris, 1896), pp. 138–39; Guebre-Sellassie , Chronique, I, p. 360, No. 8.

Vanderheym , Expedition, pp. 172, 179, 184, 186; Guebre-Sellassie , Chronique, I, p. 363.

Vanderheym , Expedition, pp. 182–83.

Berkeley , Adowa and Menelik, pp. 62–81.

Pankhurst R. , “Firearms in Ethiopian History (1800–1935),” Ethiopia Observer, Vol. VI, 2 (1962), p. 166.

Wylde A. B. , Modern Abyssinia (London, 1901), p. 53.

Ibid., p. 52; Berkeley , Adowa and Menelik, p. 215.

Berkeley , Adowa and Menelik, p. 217.

Ibid., p. 218.

Bizzoni A. , “The Battle of Adowa 1896,” Ethiopia Observer, Vol. XIV, 2 (1971), 122; Pankhurst R. , “Firearms in Ethiopian History (1800–1935),” Ethiopia Observer, Vol. VI, 2 (1962), p. 166.

Wylde , Modern Abyssinia, pp. 211, 220.

Ibid.

Wylde , Abyssinia, p. 212, Berkeley , Adowa and Menelik, p. 46.

Wylde, Abyssinia, p. 213.

Bizzoni , “The Battle of Adowa,” p. 129.

Ibid., pp. 131–33.

See note 98 above; Bizzoni , “The Battle of Adowa,” p. 129.

Bizzoni , “The Battle of Adowa,” p. 134.

Marcus G. , An Introduction to the Life of Emperor Menelik, p. 63; Wylde , Abyssinia, p. 73.

Badaglio P. Marshal , The War in Abyssinia (New York: Putnam's Son, 1937), p. 175.

Del Boca , The Ethiopian War 1935–1941 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1965), p. 122.

Steer , Sealed and Delivered (London, 1942), p. 175.

Ibid., p. 174.

Longrigg H. , A Short History of Eritrea (London: Oxford, 1945), p. 135; Trevaskis G. K. , Eritrea, A Colony in Transition: 1941–52 (London: Oxford, 1960), p. 29.

Steer , Sealed and Delivered, p. 16; Trevaskis , Eritrea, p. 18.

Trevaskis , Eritrea, p. 37.

Longrigg , Eritrea, pp. 175–76.

Trevaskis , Eritrea, p. 98.

Ethiopian Government, Consolidated Laws of Ethiopia, 2 Vols. (Addis Ababa; Artistic Press, 1972), Vol. I, p. 34.

Ibid., pp. 34–35.

Ibid., p. 45.

Lutler E. W. , Ethiopia Today (London: Oxford, 1961), p. 147.

Ethiopian Government, Consolidated Laws, I, pp.

Schwab P. , Decision-Making in Ethiopia (Rutherford: Fairleigh Dickinson Univ. Press, 1972), p. 53.