From “iron fists” to digital traps: How contemporary legal policies bypass international gender standards

Abstract

Spanish

French

Thirty years after the Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action (BPfA), the treatment of women and girls within the criminal justice system remains a critical area where international law clashes with national practice. This article looks at how the implementation of UN frameworks, including the BPfA, the Beijing Rules, and the Bangkok Rules, are applied to women and girls in conflict with the law in the United States, Honduras, and El Salvador. By reflecting on data from research projects conducted between 2015 to date, this study demonstrates in particular that UN Standards and Norms regarding the least possible use of institutionalization (BPfA Chapter IV C & D, Beijing Rule 19 & Bangkok Rule 2.1) and the elimination of discrimination (BPfA Rule 24, Beijing Rule 26.4, and Bangkok Rule 1) are not effectively applied to women and girls. The findings reveal significant contradictions between international standards and lived realities when it comes to contemporary phenomena such as gangs and digital crimes.

Keywords

Beijing rules criminal justice gender juvenile justice Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action Bangkok rules Mano Dura digital violence gangs detention

Get full access to this article

View all access options for this article.

References

Barberet

Jackson

(2017) UN rules for the treatment of women prisoners and non-custodial sanctions for women offenders (the Bangkok rules): A gendered critique’ papers. Papers: Revista de Sociología 102(2): 215–230. https://doi.org/10.5565/rev/papers.2336

Barr

(2019) Desisting Sisters. Springer International Publishing.

Braun

Clarke

(2022) Thematic Analysis: A Practical Guide. Sage Publications.

Butti

Ziosi

Van Damme

, et al (2026) Gangs and organized crime in Colombia and Honduras: Boundaries, intersections, and policy. In: Carson

Urbanik

Reid

(eds) Cross-Cultural Perspectives on Gangs: Findings from the Eurogang Program of Research. Cham, Switzerland: Springer, pp.167–196.

Caccia

(2025) Women in detention: Challenges and new approaches. RESCALED, 15 May. Available at: https://www.rescaled.org/2025/05/15/women-in-detention-challenges-and-new-approaches/

Carranza

(2006) Del asistencialismo a la incidencia y el cabildeo: Las diversas respuestas de la sociedad civil organizada al fenómeno de las pandillas en Honduras. In: Cruz

(ed.) Maras y pandillas en Centroamérica: Las respuestas de la sociedad civil organizada (Volumen IV). UCA, pp.235–328.

CEDAW (2016) Concluding observations on the combined seventh and eighth periodic reports of Honduras (CEDAW/C/HND/CO/7-8). Available at: https://docs.un.org/en/CEDAW/C/HND/8

CEDAW (2017) Concluding observations on the combined eighth and ninth periodic reports of El Salvador (CEDAW/C/SLV/8-9). Available at: https://docs.un.org/en/CEDAW/C/SLV/8

CEDAW (2022) Concluding observations on the ninth periodic report of Honduras (CEDAW/C/HND/9). Available at: https://docs.un.org/en/CEDAW/C/HND/9

10.

CEDAW (2026) Concluding observations on the tenth periodic report of El Salvador (CEDAW/C/SLV/10). Available at: https://docs.un.org/en/CEDAW/C/SLV/10

11.

Cerezo

(2017) Women in prison in Spain: The implementation of Bangkok Rules to the Spanish prison legislation. European Journal on Criminal Policy and Research 23(2): 133–151. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10610-016-9323-0

12.

Chitsawang

(2017) Implementation of the Bangkok Rules in Thai prisons. In: Van Kempen

Krabbe

(eds) Women in Prison: The Bangkok Rules and beyond. Intersentia, pp.153–160.

13.

Cobbina-Dungy

(2022) Bringing the “invisible population” to light: Justice for incarcerated and formerly incarcerated women. Violence against Women 28(8): 1809–1823. https://doi.org/10.1177/10778012221085995

14.

Código Penal, Art. 133 (1997) El Salvador. Available at: https://www.refworld.org/es/leg/legis/pleg/1997/es/125128

15.

Derluyn

Vandenhole

Parmentier

, et al. (2015) Victims and/or perpetrators? Towards an interdisciplinary dialogue on child soldiers. BMC International Health and Human Rights 15: 28. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12914-015-0068-5

16.

Dittmar

(2020) El caos también se apodera de cárcel de mujeres en Honduras. Insight Crime, 17 June. Available at: https://insightcrime.org/es/noticias/caos-carcel-pandilleras-honduras/

17.

Dittmar

(2023) Masacre en penal femenino de Honduras: Una tragedia anunciada. Insight Crime, 21 June. Available at: https://insightcrime.org/es/noticias/masacre-penal-femenino-honduras-tragedia-anunciada/

18.

Fair

Walmsley

(2025) World Female Imprisonment List, Sixth Edition: Women and Girls in Penal Institutions, Including Pre-Trial Detainees/Remand Prisoners. Institute for Crime & Justice Policy Research. Available at: https://www.prisonstudies.org/

19.

García Basalo

(2017) The design of women’s prisons: An architectural perspective on gender-specific needs and realities of female prisoners and main requirements for improvement. In: Van Kempen

Krabbe

(eds) Women in Prison: The Bangkok Rules and beyond. Intersentia, pp.161–174. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781780684994.012

20.

Gutiérrez Rivera

LDC

(2011) Security policies from a spatial perspective: The case of Honduras. Iberoamericana 11(41): 143–158.

21.

Hasinoff

(2015) Sexting Panic: Rethinking Criminalization, Privacy, and Consent. University of Illinois Press.

22.

InfoSegura (2022) Análisis Sobre la Situación de la Población Penitenciaria: Honduras 2022. Available at: https://infosegura.org/honduras/analisis-sobre-la-situacion-de-la-poblacion-penitenciaria-honduras-2022

23.

Institute for Crime & Justice Policy Research (2025) World prison brief: Honduras. Available at: https://www.prisonstudies.org/country/honduras

24.

Instituto Latinoamericano de las Naciones Unidas para la Prevención del Delito y el Tratamiento del Delincuente (ILANUD) (2025) Reporte de la Reunión Consultiva Regional de América Latina y el Caribe para avanzar en la aplicación de las Reglas de las Naciones Unidas para el tratamiento de las reclusas y medidas no privativas de la libertad para las mujeres delincuentes (Reglas de Bangkok), realizada en San José, Costa Rica, del 25 al 27 de noviembre de 2024 (A/CONF.241/RPM.2/CRP.1). UNODC. Available at: https://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/crimecongress/regional/latin-america.html

25.

James

Glaze

(2006) Mental Health Problems of Prison and Jail Inmates (NCJ 213600). Bureau of Justice Statistics.

26.

Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention Act (JJDPA) (2018) Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention Act of 1974, 34 U.S.C. § 11101 et seq. Available at: https://ojjdp.ojp.gov/sites/g/files/xyckuh176/files/media/document/JJDPA-of-1974-as-Amended-12-21-18.pdf

27.

Kilkelly

Pleysier

(2023) Rights of the child in the child justice system. Youth Justice 23(2): 135–139.

28.

La Fors-Owczynik

(2015) Minor protection or major injustice? Children’s rights and digital preventions directed at youth in the Dutch justice system. Computer Law & Security Review 31(5): 651–667.

29.

Labantu

(2021) Beijing +25 consultative forumGeneration Equality: Realising Women’s Rights for an Equal Future. Agenda 35(2): 157–165. DOI: 10.1080/10130950.2021.1930884.

30.

Ley Nacer con Cariño (2021) Ley Nacer con Cariño para un Parto Respetado y un Cuidado Cariñoso y Sensible para el Recién Nacido [Caring births act for a respected birth affectionate sensitive care for the newborn], Decreto N. 123. Available at: https://crecerjuntos.gob.sv/dist/documents/Ley_nacer_con_carino.pdf

31.

Lopez

(2017) Complicated Lives: Girls, Parents, Drugs, and Juvenile Justice. Rutgers University Press.

32.

Lyttle Storrod

(2022) Ecological ruptures and strain: Girls, juvenile justice, and phone removal. International Journal for Crime, Justice and Social Democracy 11(1): 120–134. DOI: 10.5204/ijcjsd.2188.

33.

Lyttle Storrod

(forthcoming) Girls Digital Pathways to the Juvenile Justice System.

34.

Lyttle Storrod

Van Damme (2025) Mothers and gang intervention: A cross-national account. International Criminology 5: 517–530. DOI: 10.1007/s43576-025-00176-2.

35.

Martínez D’Aubuisson

(2015) Ver, oír y callar: Un año con la Mara Salvatrucha 13. Pepitas de calabaza.

36.

Méndez

(2019) The violence work of transnational gangs in Central America. Third World Quarterly 40(2): 373–388. https://doi.org/10.1080/01436597.2018.1533786

37.

Molyneux

Razavi

(2005) Beijing plus ten: An ambivalent record on gender justice. Development and Change 36(6): 983–1010. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0012-155X.2005.00446.x

38.

O’Brien

(2024) Criminalisation: The legal and ethical complexities of criminalising children for emergent, digitally-enabled crimes. In: O’Brien

(ed.) Children’s Rights and Criminal Justice in the Digital Age. Springer Nature. pp.105–133.

39.

Smith

Ingel

Rudes

(2023) “Like an animal”: The well‑being of women living in restricted housing units. Health & Justice 11: 15. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40352-023-00215-y

40.

Sparks

Stephens

Trendell

(2023) Image-based sexual abuse: Victim-perpetrator overlap and risk-related correlates of coerced sexting, non-consensual dissemination of intimate images, and cyberflashing. Computers in Human Behavior 148: 107879. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2023.107879

41.

UN Women (2024) Call to action: Towards Beijing+30 – UNiTE to end violence against women and girls. Available at: https://www.unwomen.org/en/news-stories/statement/2024/11/statement-call-to-action-towards-beijing-plus-30-unite-to-end-violence-against-women-and-girls

42.

UN Women (2025) CSW69 / Beijing+30 (2025). Available at: https://www.unwomen.org/en/how-we-work/commission-on-the-status-of-women/csw69-2025

43.

United Nations (1979) Convention on the elimination of all forms of discrimination against women (Resolution 34/180 of 18 December 1979). Available at: https://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/cedaw/cedaw.htm

44.

United Nations (1989) United Nations convention on the rights of the child, November 20, 1989. Available at: https://www.unicef.org.au/united-nations-convention-on-the-rights-of-the-child

45.

United Nations (1995) Report of the Fourth World Conference on Women (The Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action, A/CONF.177/20/Rev.1). United Nations. Available at: https://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/beijing/fwcwn.html

46.

United Nations (2015) Transforming Our World: The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development (A/RES/70/1). United Nations. Available at: https://sdgs.un.org/publications/transforming-our-world-2030-agenda-sustainable-development-17981

47.

United Nations Economic and Social Council (2026) 70th session of the commission on the status of women (E/CN.6/2026/3). Available at: https://www.unwomen.org/en/how-we-work/commission-on-the-status-of-women/csw70-2026/official-documents

48.

United Nations General Assembly (1985) United Nations Standard Minimum Rules for the Administration of Juvenile Justice (The Beijing Rules, A/RES/40/33). Available at: https://www.refworld.org/legal/resolution/unga/1985/10533

49.

United Nations General Assembly (1990a) Guidelines for the Prevention of Juvenile Delinquency (The Riyadh Guidelines, A/RES/45/112). United Nations General Assembly.

50.

United Nations General Assembly (1990b) United Nations rules for the protection of juveniles deprived of their liberty (The Havana Rules, A/RES/45/113). Available at: https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/105555

51.

United Nations General Assembly (2010) United Nations Rules for the Treatment of Women Prisoners and Non-Custodial Measures for Women Offenders (The Bangkok Rules, A/C.3/65/L.5). Available at: https://www.refworld.org/reference/themreport/unga/2010/79245

52.

United Nations General Assembly (2015) United Nations Standard Minimum Rules for the Treatment of Prisoners (The Nelson Mandela Rules). United Nations General Assembly. Available at: https://www.refworld.org/docid/5698a3a44.html

53.

United Nations Specialised Conferences (1955) Standard Minimum Rules for the Treatment of Prisoners. Available at: https://www.refworld.org/legal/otherinstr/un/1955/108625

54.

Van Damme

(2019) When overt research feels covert: Researching women and gangs in a context of silence and fear. Journal of Extreme Anthropology 3(1): 121–134. DOI: 10.5617/jea.6696.

55.

Van Damme

(2020) The Ecology of Violence and Silence: The Position and Role of Women in and Around Gangs in Honduras (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). KU Leuven, Belgium.

56.

Van Damme

(2021) Corruption, impunity and mistrust: moving beyond police gatekeepers for researching gangs. Journal of Aggression Conflict and Peace Research 13(2/3), 125–135. DOI: 10.1108/JACPR-01-2021-0572.

57.

Van Damme

(2026) Jennifer: The first female Honduran gang leader. In Rodgers

(Ed.), Gang Lives: Global Portraits from the Streets and Beyond. London: Bloomsbury, pp.65–81.

58.

Van Hout

Wessels

(2022) Human rights and the invisible nature of incarcerated women in post-apartheid South Africa: Prison system progress in adopting the Bangkok Rules. International Journal of Prisoner Health 18(3): 300–315. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJPH-05-2021-0045

59.

Van Hout

Fleißner

Stöver

(2023) ‘Women’s right to health in detention’: United Nations committee observations since the adoption of the United Nations rules for the treatment of women prisoners and non-custodial measures for women offenders (Bangkok Rules). Journal of Human Rights Practice 15(1): 138–155. https://doi.org/10.1093/jhuman/huac058

60.

Weber

(2021) Defying the victim-perpetrator binary: Female ex-combatants in Colombia and Guatemala as complex political perpetrators. The International Journal of Transitional Justice 15(2): 264–283. https://doi.org/10.1093/ijtj/ijab006