Creating an Education Research Acculturation Theory for Research Implementation in School

Abstract

This study investigates the implementation of educational research among urban secondary schools in Malaysia. The respondents include school teachers and administrators, lecturers in education institutions, and committee members of the state education departments. Data collected from interviews were coded and analyzed using open, axial and selected coding procedures. Six core categories emerged from the data namely implementation initiative, implementation obstacles, collaboration, research knowledge, research needs, and suggestions to overcome the weaknesses. The findings showed that the quality and quantity of education research in school depend on the existence of a research culture. The findings of this study form an education research acculturation theory for research implementation in schools.

Keywords

educational policy school improvement urban education teachers

Introduction

Research is an important component of the overall duties of teachers at school. Carrying out research gives them the opportunity to examine their “own practice as a basis for professional development, each school, and indeed each classroom, is a laboratory in which the curriculum and problems experienced as problems by teachers (not outside researchers) are subjected to empirical examination (McKernan 1988, p. 154). This is specified in the Master Plan for the Development of Education (PIPP) developed by the Ministry of Education (Malaysian Ministry of Education, 2007). Teachers undertake research to gain an understanding of classroom teaching and learning, and this can be used to enhance their insights into the efficacy of teaching and learning (Tie & Chua, 2010). In fact, one of the ways of improving the quality of teaching in the PIPP is through a systematic implementation of action research in school (Chua, 2009).

This indicates that the teacher’s duties go beyond teaching in the classroom, and have become more complex, less focused, and more of a burden. Teachers are required to make use of their research findings in the classroom to improve their own teaching and learning (Hargreaves, 1996). According to Ghazali and Murtedza (1996) reported in Tan, Rosinah, and Chua (2004), actions and decisions made by teachers in the classroom must be based on sound information and research findings. The writers agree with the suggestion in the PIPP that the education of teachers can be improved by using quality research findings. However, research shows that teachers face a lot of problems in carrying out research. Karukstis (2004) reports that 80% of the respondents said that they had insufficient time for research. Another stumbling block which makes it more difficult to develop a research culture in school is the attitude of teachers. They do not see how research can make student learning more effective, and regard it as inaccessible, irrelevant to their daily experiences in the classroom, or counterintuitive (Cochran-Smith & Lytle, 1990). Johnson (1989) argued that the increased methodological sophistication of educational research has helped academic researchers in their careers, but has made research less accessible to practitioners.

Fleming (2003) maintains that bureaucracy and the increase in the burden of work are the main disincentives to undertake research in school. Giving academic freedom to teachers will encourage research-based activities. He believes that one of the factors that determine the success of a school in producing quality research is the attitude and commitment of the management and the attitude of teachers themselves toward research activities. The management has to create a conducive environment to encourage teachers (and their students) to get involved in research.

Ebbutt (2002) attempts to identify the factors that support or hinder research undertaken by teachers in school. He reports that schools with a research culture are those that support and encourage research activities and have an appropriate management structure to promote the development of research at school. However, those without a research culture have characteristics which discourage research. Factors which discourage teacher research include poor leadership and insufficient commitment from management, and the lack of physical facilities, the lack of ICT support and community support, and the general lack of incentives.

According to Tan et al. (2004), a problem faced by schools and teaching institutes is the lack of encouragement from the management. Support from management is crucial to instill a research culture. To encourage a research culture in school, research work needs to be given recognition in the form of special awards, salary increases, research grants, and opportunities for promotion. In this article, we focus on action research activities carried out in schools.

Research Problem

The discussion of the relevant literature highlights several different aspects of research in school, with the main focus on the importance of research in improving the efficacy of teaching and learning in the classroom. The literature also raises problems in the implementation of research in school, including the attitude of teachers and school management, and the level of support for research activities. There are two different views on the implementation of educational research and what determines its success. The first view is that research performance depends on the attitude of teachers toward research, and the second is that it depends on the support and encouragement given by the school management and the education department responsible for the undertaking of research. However, there is no theory of research that can be used as a guide to improve the level of research in the organization. In addition, the literature recommends that a much richer set of qualitative data needs to be collected to explain the implementation of research in school. This literature mostly deals with research abroad. The main question that needs to be raised here is: What research practices are involved in research in our local schools?

Purpose of the Study

This study examines the elements required to implement quality educational research in school. In particular, the purpose is to determine how research is carried out in school, to examine and explain what is currently going on in schools in terms of research, and to suggest a theory to be used as a guide to the implementation of educational research.

Research Questions

More specifically, this research seeks to answer the following three questions:

Research Question 1: What is the role of school teachers and managers, lecturers in teaching institutes, and the research committee of the state education department in improving the implementation of research in school?

Research Question 2: What factors influence the implementation of research in school?

Research Question 3: What advice can be given by school teachers and managers, lecturers from teaching institutes, and the research committee for improving the implementation of research in school?

Method, Research Procedure, and Theoretical Structure

The interpretative method was adopted to achieve the aims of the study and the requirements specified in the literature, that is, the collection of a rich set of data from a variety of sources. The interpretative method explains the characteristics of a small number of the participants in detail and in depth (Chua, 2006). The research will trace the implementation of research in schools from data to theory and practice. Although the results of this study will involve the creation of theory, they will not question the validity of the theory or what has already been established (Conrad, 1995). Neither does this study aim to lay down standards to be used in all schools nor compare the data collected with the standards already adopted for the implementation of research in schools by other parties.

The theoretical framework of grounded theory is appropriate for this research because it gives due consideration to the theoretical requirements and the interpretative method. The grounded theory developed by Glaser and Strauss (1967) is defined as a set of specified operational procedures and systematic data analysis developed inductively from a set of data to enhance a theory regarding a particular social phenomenon. In accordance with grounded theory, the data for this study is collected through observation, interviews, and written documentation, and it is then systematically analyzed and interpreted, and finally used to generate a theory regarding a phenomenon that is “grounded” in its systematic analysis. In this way, grounded theory is particularly appropriate as the aim is to explain a process rather verify an existing theory.

According to Strauss and Corbin (1990), research procedures associated with grounded theory can be adapted, implemented again, and reassessed according to the researcher’s creativity. To achieve the aims of this study, it is necessary to check and recheck the data, to question it critically, to obtain new data which is more appropriate, and to maintain a skeptical attitude, that is, to question every piece of original data given by the respondents. This strategy will enable us to raise questions which are both precise and appropriate.

Validity and Reliability

In grounded theory, four criteria determine the validity of the data. These are (a) constant comparison of research findings with everyday experience, (b) the application of research findings in the field, (c) the abstract nature of the theory, and (d) the ability of the theory generated to be adapted for application in various contexts (Strauss & Corbin, 1990). To enhance the validity of this study, in the process of discovering the theory implicit in the data, the four criteria will be met. In addition, we use the emerging theoretical framework in which questions relating to categories of open codification are put forward, and the original data is reexamined for further evidence. Axial coding, which is the process of developing main categories and subcategories, is subsequently carried out to trace the relationships between categories, and to enhance the validity and reliability of the study (Creswell, 2005).

To enhance the validity, the research process is verified by comparing the emerging theory with the literature. In addition, the validation of the theory by external consultants and respondents will strengthen the theory and directly enhance construct validity and the reliability of the study (Strauss & Corbin, 1998). For this study, checks are carried out on four respondents, one from each group. Checks are carried out on the research findings taken from each respondent, and changes are made in accordance with their requests. As the study uses qualitative data, data triangulation is also conducted to increase study the reliability of the study.

To enhance the reliability and validity of the interview items, four pilot interviews were conducted to find out whether the items are appropriate to collect data to answer the research questions. The respondents included school teachers and managers, lecturers from teaching institutes, and the members of the research committee of the state education department. The findings of the pilot study were recorded on an interview form, and the data showed that the items were suitable for collecting the data required. Minor changes were made to two items (school teachers) after consulting the respondents.

Participants of the Study

In grounded theory, sampling is generally used to select respondents with the potential to provide the researcher with the information required to generate a theory implicit in the corpus data. In this study, we used theoretical sampling to select suitable respondents. This means that the sampling was carried out with a specific purpose in mind, and focused on the generation of theory (Creswell, 2005). Teachers and managers were selected as the main respondents because they were directly involved in the implementation of research in schools. However, additional information was also required from the lecturers and the research committee. The collection of data began with teachers and managers as the main source of data, followed by the research committee members and the lecturers.

All the respondents were selected from one district in the middle zone of peninsular Malaysia. This was chosen because it is an area that has experienced exceptional economic growth.

Teachers

Strauss and Corbin (1990) propose the careful selection of respondents because the quality of the data depends on how good they are. The population for the study consists of six school teachers who are members of the research committee in their own schools. They were selected as respondents on the recommendation of the schools themselves. They have all attended courses on action research in the past 5 years, and they are expected to provide appropriate information to help us reach the research objectives.

Managers

The school managers are the school principal and the senior academic assistant directly involved in the implementation of research in schools. According to Glanz (1999), an effective school manager uses school-based research to overcome problems encountered in schools, especially disciplinary problems. School-based research provides the school manager with the foundation, strong evidence, and also the rationale to make reliable decisions (Hunter & Gish, 1978). Educational research in school is an extremely valuable asset in assisting the school administration to overcome problems in an effort to improve performance, and the school managers are directly involved in research activities (Haller & Kleine, 2001). Data from the school managers can thus provide direct and precise information about the implementation of research in schools. In this study, three school managers, including one principal and two senior academic assistants, were interviewed on issues relating to the management, implementation of research, and their involvement in conducting research in schools.

Research committee officers

Officers of the state education office research committee are responsible for planning and implementing research, and for disseminating the research findings. In addition, they are responsible for organizing research seminars at the state level. These are the officers responsible for the publication of research reports produced by school teachers. Three officers were interviewed for this study on the functions and requirements of educational research, planning problems and implementation, and also the support available for the implementation of research in schools.

Lecturers

The teaching institute lecturers selected as respondents were members of the Department of Research and Professional Development at a teaching institute. They were actively involved in providing school teachers with in-service courses on research. The aim of these courses is to increase the teachers’ ability to conduct research, and include courses on action research, data analysis, and writing research reports. In view of their important role in enhancing the teachers’ ability to conduct research, the lecturers were expected to provide additional data regarding the ability, experience and involvement of school teachers in carrying out research in schools. Three lecturers from the teaching institute were interviewed on the teachers’ level of knowledge, training, and experience in conducting research.

Research Instrument

Four interview inventories were constructed for the collection of relevant data from the four groups of respondents. The Teacher Inventory contains five items concerning the teachers’ involvement in conducting research in school, and four recommendations to enhance the effectiveness of the implementation of research in school. The Manager Inventory contains four items concerned with administration, five items on implementation, and four items on their involvement in research in school. The Research Committee Inventory contains items five items concerned with the function and requirement of educational research, five items on the research culture in school, five items on problems of planning and implementation, and three items on the support given for the implementation of research in schools. Finally, the Lecturer Inventory contains items concerned with the level of knowledge (two items), training (three items), and the experience and ability of school teachers to conduct research in school (three items).

Data Collection

The main method of data collection was semistructured interview using the instrument described above. Additional data collected included documents such as notices and minutes of meetings, the proceedings of educational research seminars, research reports, and teaching notebooks which provided written evidence on the implementation of educational research in schools.

Data collection and analysis were carried out simultaneously (Strauss, 1987; Glaser, 1978). In view of the time consuming nature of interview data analysis, the transcribed data was analyzed using ATLAS.TI software, which is used to record and codify qualitative data, and facilitates the task of coding the data. According to Strauss and Corbin (1998), ATLAS.TI is an ideal tool to analyze data in connection with grounded theory.

Data Analysis

Grounded theory research uses a systematic method of data collection and analysis with the aim of constructing an in-depth understanding of social and psychological phenomena (Chenitz & Swanson, 1986). To achieve this aim, data analysis involves three types of coding: open coding, axial coding, and selected coding.

Open coding

Open coding involves checking and rechecking data which has been collected and transcribed and in which relevant codes are given to statements that are both meaningful and important.

Open coding of the data in the transcription is carried out in succession while waiting for new data to be collected. Reflection is done in advance, while and after the data is collected to ensure that the data collected is suitable and sufficient. In accordance with grounded theory, data is collected until it is sufficient or reaches a level of saturation, that is, until no new concepts are obtained. Even though all respondents were interviewed, the examination of the data indicates that it reached a level of saturation in the interview with teacher number 5, manager number 3, committee officer number 2, and lecturer number 3. In addition, data collected from written documents were combined with the interview data according to theme and concept.

After the completion of the open coding, the researcher worked systematically to ascertain concepts to be placed in the same category. Each category is checked carefully again to enhance the researcher’s understanding of the data. New data categories which have been constructed are labeled and compared, and referred to categories in the literature to assess their importance to the research. The process of labeling, rechecking the data, and assessing the importance of the data is repeated until the final decision is made to determine the data categories.

The open coding of the interview data led to the identification of six main categories and several subcategories. These categories are the implementation of initiatives, deterrents, effects, the understanding of research, research requirements, and suggestions for improving weaknesses.

Axial coding

Axial coding is a synthesis of open coding as the codes for categories are connected to each other. To make the link between codes, the semantic relationship questions technique is employed. The kinds of question asked include “How is this assertion linked to other assertions?” “Are there similarities to other assertions?” “Is it one of the steps in a process?” “Is it caused by an action or strategy?” “Is it the main cause?” and “Is it the outcome of a process?” The use of this technique enables the researcher to arrange and place an idea with data with the same theme in the same category, known as a domain (Spradley, 1980). By studying each paragraph in the data, sentences containing the same idea are coded, and finally when all the data has been examined, units containing the codes are identified and placed in the same domain or category.

Selective coding

Strauss and Corbin (1990) identify criteria for the selection of a central category in the selective coding: It must be central in the sense that it is every other main category can be related to it; it must appear frequently in the data. This means that in every or nearly every case, there are indicators to the concept; and the name or term used to represent the central category should be sufficiently abstract to enable research to be conducted in the relevant field, and this is important for the creation of a new theory which is more general in nature.

In this study, selective coding moves the coding process on from description to the formation of concepts concerning the research practice. The theory implicit in the research data is now revealed. A single main category is selected as the core category. This is the foundation for the construction of grounded theory. Under each category there is a list of statements providing evidence to support a new theory.

Results

Based on the axial coding, six core categories emerged from the data, namely implementation initiative, implementation obstacles, collaboration, research knowledge, research needs, and suggestions to overcome the weaknesses (Table 1). The story line and analytic story or explanation for the grounded theory is formed by taking the research culture as the main category, and tracing its relationship to the different data categories.

Table 1.

Six Categories of Data Emerged From the Study.

Category	Dimension	Data
Implementation of initiatives	Manner of implementation	1 Directives from state education office to schools to carry out research
		2 The focus of action research is identified
		3 Proposals are presented in schools
		4 Improved by the state education office panel
		5 The research is carried out
		6 The research findings are presented in a special seminar
		7 Documentation
	Types of activity	8 Courses, workshops, seminars
		9 Expert discussions/forum/seminars/workshops
	Scope of study	10 Teaching and learning (critical subjects)
		11 Critical contemporary issues, for example, discipline, values, reading skills
		12 Teachers are given the freedom to choose the field of research
		13 Learning and teaching
		14 Work done by students
		15 Students’ performance
		16 Discipline
		17 Pedagogical reflection
		18 The suitability of the curriculum
		19 Action research on the impact of the education program
		20 Critical subjects, such as special education
Problems which hinder	Culture	21 No research culture in the school
		22 Little interest in research
implementation	Skills	23 Insufficient skills for the analysis of items/report writing/manner of presentation
		24 Lack of writing skills
		25 Lack of expertise
		26 Incomplete action research reports in journals because teachers do not have the skills
		27 Weak empirical evidence because of the lack of skills
		28 Ineffective courses provided for teachers by teaching institutes
		29 No confidence in analyzing and interpreting data
	Knowledge	30 Uncertainty about procedures to carry out research or obtain research information
		31 Lack of knowledge on how to conduct research
		32 Incomplete input from the department
		33 Resource problems
		34 No funding and workload
		35 No previous study of research as a subject in the teaching institutes; only studied a little action research theory
		36 Knowledge of research restricted to action research courses lasting only three days
		37 Inadequacy of action research courses only providing lecturer input
	Cooperation and collaboration	38 No cooperation among teachers
		39 No monitoring
		40 Lack of cooperation between schools, teaching institutes and state education office
		41 Insufficient communication on matters concerning research
	Teachers’ attitude	42 Teachers did not carry out research if not asked
		43 They regarded R&D as peripheral work
		44 Negative attitude toward research
		45 Depends on attitude of teachers and the school management
		46 Insufficient cooperation
		47 They regarded research as something big
	Support	48 No financial support
		49 Lack of encouragement from the mentor or supervisor
		50 No recognition
		51 No research rooms in schools, e.g. printing room, computer equipment or research facilities
		52 State Education Office provided the school with funding for research
		53 No certificates awarded
		54 Staff annual performance did not include their research activities
		55 Teaching and learning schedule was over full
		56 No time for research activities
		57 Skills and knowledge
		58 Cost and expenses
		59 Lack of source of reference
		60 Lack of encouragement from the management
	Dissemination	61 The research findings are just filed away
		62 Research findings were not published
		63 The research findings that state education office received were published in seminar proceedings
The effects of implementation	Subsequent action	64 Uncertainty about the effect of research implementation in schools
		65 Lack of subsequent action from the department after receiving the research findings
		66 Research findings filed away
	Dissemination	67 Disseminating information through seminars
		68 Publishing research findings in journals and proceedings
Understanding research	Research functions	69 Helping to improve the professional level of teachers
		70 Helping the school to develop
		71 Improving the academic performance of students
		72 Improving the teaching and learning in the classroom
		73 Research opens the mind
		74 Increasing knowledge
		75 Giving insights into real problems
		76 Sharing knowledge
		77 Improving the skills of teachers in teaching and learning
		78 Improving teaching and learning practices
		79 Assisting with the development of the school curriculum
Research requirements	Types of research required	80 Action research
		81 Conventional research
		82 Needs research
	Knowledge	83 Improving the knowledge of teacher trainees in teaching institutes; research is taught as a single subject and the core subject in class
		84 Action research and school-based research
Suggestions for overcoming weaknesses	Training	85 Produce an R&D curriculum for teacher trainees and trained teachers
		86 Put on courses for teachers covering the whole process of action research
		87 Produce a syllabus for all teacher trainees in teaching institutes
		88 Only a small number of school teachers have the opportunity to take research courses (in-service courses) each year
		89 Must produce a syllabus for all teachers taking in-service courses
	Recognition	90 Give recognition—the giving of certificates as a way of assessing performance
		91 Provide time for research
		92 Give leave to carry out research
	Monitoring	93 Carry out monitoring until a complete cycle is achieved
		94 Provide or appoint a special officer to carry out monitoring at all levels of research
	Collaboration	95 State educational office and teaching institutes collaborate with head teachers to help them understand the importance of research in schools
	Research culture	96 Cultivate a research culture in school
		97 To encourage a research culture in individual schools, and bring about better cooperation between state education office, teaching institutes and schools
	Support from school management	98 Support and encouragement from lecturers
		99 Financial support100 Resources
		101 Permission to carry out research outside the teaching institutes
		102 No support
		103 Publishing
		104 Leave and flexi time
		105 A special R&D room
		106 Certificates or awards
		107 R&D expertise in one team
		108 Lecturer cooperation
		109 Directives from the top to promote R&D (carrying out research is a requirement)
		110 Opportunities to attend seminars
	Implementation	111 Implementation should be updated, improved and acculturated
	Creating a research culture	112 An R&D culture developed in schools through directives (Top–down policy)
		113 Research culture should be created to solve the problems in the school
		114 R&D should be part of a culture in school because it enhances teaching professionalism and answers the call of the National Education Policy and Program

Story Line

The research data shows that educational research plays an important role in school because it can raise the quality of teaching and teacher learning and help teachers overcome the problem of daily practice. Nevertheless, there are constraints and hindrances caused by the teachers themselves, school management and outside agencies. In the effort to introduce a research culture, it is important to motivate the teachers by actively involving them, and by providing a conducive environment. Nevertheless, the research also shows that what determines success in creating and implementing a research culture includes teacher attitude, support from the school management, cooperation between teachers, adequate resources, research skills, and sufficient time. In addition, to encourage research activities in schools, it is necessary to overcome hindrances such as a school culture that does not encourage educational research activities, and a lack of support from outside the department in terms of incentives and encouragement.

To achieve the objective of implementing quality research, effective strategies and action are essential. This includes training, courses relevant to research, recognition of the research effort, good monitoring, collaboration between teachers, in addition to support and encouragement from the school management. For external practice, the acculturation process will be further enhanced through collaboration between schools and the department of education, and opportunities for teachers to attend seminars and research workshops, and the chance to publish their research findings in educational journals.

Analytic Story

The data shows that it is necessary to implement research. Research activities are believed to enhance teachers’ knowledge and assist them to overcome problems in teaching and learning practices in the classroom. This acculturation effort is needed before teachers can produce quality educational research. However, the two main challenges that need to be overcome are teacher readiness and the context f organization. Optimal internal and external practices can also guarantee success in implementing educational research in school.

Research Acculturation

The analytic narrative presented above leads to a theory of education research acculturation, which is a term used to refer to the creation of a culture and an environment to encourage the implementation of quality research in school. According to Creswell (2005), theory in grounded theory research is an abstract explanation or understanding of a process concerning nouns in some topic hidden in the research data. This means that the theory is generated from the data itself, which is collected directly from different sources and individuals. Because the theory which is generated derives from the data (Glaser & Strauss, 1967), it does not have wide scope or applications. In the light of this statement, it should be remembered that the acculturation theory that is produced from this study does not aim to produce standards to be used in all schools or to compare with existing standards in the implementation of education research in schools by relevant parties. However, it can be used as a reference for education institutions involved in the implementation and acculturation of education research in the organization.

There are three criteria which emerge from the data and which define the theory of research acculturation in school:

Teachers and schools must be willing before a research culture can be cultivated.

Willingness on the part of teachers includes their attitude to research activities, their skills in carrying out educational research, problems arising from a lack of resources and sources of reference, an environment that encourages cooperation between teachers in educational research activities, sufficient time and support from the school managers for such activities.

The organizational environment and climate must be appropriate and must encourage educational research activities.

The organizational environment and climate requires a school culture that emphasizes research activities, and includes support from departments elsewhere (state and district education offices), training conditions that can produce teachers who are proresearch, and strong financial support for research activities.

Effective strategies must be implemented to encourage research activities.

The strategy to encourage a research culture includes internal and external practices. It is essential to implement internal practices such as training and courses related to research, especially action research. Second, it is essential to have an effective monitoring system for courses given by experts to teachers in school on the preparation, implementation and analysis of data, and also on research report writing. In addition, recognition must be given to the efforts of teachers involved in carrying out educational research. Collaboration among teachers and between teachers and outside institutions such as teaching institutes and higher education institutions should be encouraged. The school management must also give general support and encouragement to teachers who carry out research in school. With regard to external practices, research collaboration between schools and education departments involved in research activities should be improved. Teachers are given an opportunity to attend and present their working research papers in education seminars. In addition, the findings of research by teachers should be disseminated through education research journals.

The acculturation research theory which is developed through this study is presented using the paradigm model. Figure 1 below shows the interaction between categories of the research data which form the paradigm model for the acculturation research theory.

Figure 1.

Paradigm model for Acculturation Research Theory in schools.

Discussion and Research Implications

The research data shows that the implementation of education research in schools in this study has not achieved a satisfactory level. However, efforts have been made to raise the level of acculturation of education research in schools by state education office, teaching institutes, and the schools themselves.

The literature review shows that so far no grounded acculturation research theory has been developed through research theory. The grounded theory created through this research is in line with the assertions of the Malaysian Ministry of Education (Chua, 2010) that to improve the quality of teaching and learning, research should be included in the work culture of teachers. In addition, the grounded theory of research confirms the findings of Ebbut (2002) that schools with a research culture are those that encourage and support research activities. However, to create the research culture, one must consider a number of factors, including the quality of management leadership, school physical facilities, ICT facilities, support from the school community, and incentives for the research effort in school.

In addition, the grounded theory of research acculturation supported by several researchers (Fleming, 2003; Hunter & Gish, 1978; Karukstis, 2004) show that factors influencing research activities include time constraints, the attitude and commitment of teachers, support from the school management, school culture, the school workload, freedom, and a positive school environment.

The grounded theory of research acculturation which is formed from the data gives the implication that quality education research in schools in this study can only be guaranteed in the presence of a research culture. To create an education research culture in school, all factors in the context of preparedness and the organization of context in grounded theory must be overcome. In addition, by implementing the internal and external practices effectively, the quality and quantity of research in schools can be assured.

Footnotes

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Author Biographies

Yan Piaw Chua is a senior lecturer at the Institute of Principalship Studies, University of Malaya in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. His area of research includes educational research and theory, educational leadership, creativity, and thinking skills.

Fatt Hee Tie is an associate professor at the Institute of Principalship Studies, University of Malaya in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. His research interests include educational leadership, education law, and policy.

Zuraidah Mohd Don is a professor at the Faculty of Languages and Linguistics, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Her research interests include linguistics, language development, and policy.

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