Correlations Among Classroom Emotional Climate,Social Self-Efficacy,and Psychological Health of University Students in Taiwan

Abstract

The purposes of this study were to explore the correlations among classroom emotional climate, student social self-efficacy, and student psychological health. This study treated 392 university students as the research participants. The results of the confirmatory factor analysis showed that the factor structure of classroom emotional climate and social self-efficacy had a good fit. The results showed that classroom emotional climate could significantly affect social self-efficacy, that social self-efficacy could significantly predict self-esteem and depression, and that self-esteem could also significantly predict depression. Finally, the research results were discussed, and relevant suggestions were proposed for schools, teachers, and future research.

Keywords

classroom emotional climate social self-efficacy self-esteem depression

Introduction

Teachers are responsible for developing supportive classroom climates to help students’ social, emotional, and academic development (Barr, 2017; Brackett et al., 2011), and a number of studies have emphasized the importance of improving social and emotional climates at schools (Maxwell et al., 2017; Thapa et al., 2013). There are also in-depth studies on the correlations between classroom emotional climate and student learning behavior, motivation, and achievements (Brackett et al., 2011; Reyes et al., 2012; Ryan & Patrick, 2001); however, these studies have overlooked their influence on the psychological and social development of students.

The class environmental social concepts and social relationships that arise from academic success at school, the perception of classroom peers as friends, and positive interactions with peers and teachers are all important factors for the psychological function and social adaptation of adolescents (Blankemeyer et al., 2002; Reinke & Herman, 2002; Uslu & Gizir, 2016; Wei et al., 2003). Research has shown that positive interaction with teachers and the desire for friendships with peers both have positive influences on adaptation (Baker, 2006; Davis, 2006; Swenson et al., 2008), and that the support from teachers and peers has a greater effect on adolescent self-esteem and depression (Chang et al., 2018). These research results have found that factors such as teacher support, the promotion of interaction, and the promotion of mutual respect may affect student psychological health; however, these research results tend to singularly analyze the effect of positive teacher behavior on student psychological health, without a more integrated exploration of how classroom emotional climate affects student psychological health. Thus, this study further explored the correlations between classroom emotional climate, student self-esteem, and depression.

It is worth noting that in the school or daily life context of social interaction, the extent of self-confidence for successfully starting and maintaining social interactions in interpersonal relationships is the amount of social self-efficacy (Smith & Betz, 2000). High social self-efficacy is not only significantly correlated to effective social behavior and can help convert the factors that trouble adolescents but can also be a key factor in establishing and maintaining mutually beneficial friendships (Matsushima, 2016). It has also been widely applied to the fields of psychological adaptation and psychological health (Iskender & Akin, 2010). Empirical studies have found that teacher support, mutual respect, and the promotion of classroom interaction (Mallinckrodt & Wei, 2005; Patrick et al., 2007) have a high positive correlation to social self-efficacy. Social self-efficacy is also significantly correlated to high self-esteem (Hermann & Betz, 2004, 2006; Raskauskas et al., 2015; Smith & Betz, 2000, 2002) and low depression (Ahmad et al., 2014; Bandura et al., 1999; Hermann & Betz, 2004, 2006; Smith & Betz, 2000, 2002). This means that social self-efficacy may have a crucial influence on the relationships between classroom emotional climate and issues of psychological health such as self-esteem and depression. Thus, to explore the correlation between classroom emotional climate and student psychological health, as well as potential psychological influence mechanisms, this study constructed a model to explore the correlation among variables, which could serve as a reference for using a positive classroom emotional climate to elevate the social interaction skills and psychological health of students in the future.

Literature Review

Classroom Emotional Climate and Social Self-Efficacy

Classroom emotional climate refers to whether teachers care for and are willing to help their students, as well as the expectation that all students view each other and their contributions with importance and the requirement that students be considerate of the feelings of others. It also involves whether teachers encourage students to interact and exchange opinions in the classroom, create opportunities for student debate, evaluate and hone ideas, evaluate other possibilities, and give or receive assistance from other students (Harvey et al., 2016; Meirovich, 2012; Patrick et al., 2007; Ryan & Patrick, 2001). These factors refer to a positive climate. However, few studies have comprehensively explored the correlation between the classroom psychological and social environment and social self-efficacy, but instead have individually explored the correlations between teacher support, the promotion of interaction, mutual respect, and social self-efficacy. For instance, teachers who offer emotional support and who can promote classroom interaction and mutual respect can positively connect student, teacher, and peer interaction efficacies (Mallinckrodt & Wei, 2005; Patrick et al., 2007; Ruzek et al., 2016; Ryan & Patrick, 2001). This shows that the quality of classroom social relationships and environments may have positive influences on the social self-efficacy of students. Based on the above, this study presented the following hypothesis:

Hypothesis 1 (H1): Classroom emotional climate has a positive predictive relationship with social self-efficacy.

Social Self-Efficacy and Psychological Health

Social self-efficacy is a dimension of the effective social skills, and it plays a determining role in the social relationships and social interaction of adolescents (Minter & Pritzker, 2015). Social self-efficacy is not only correlated to effective social behavior but is also widely applied in psychological adaptation and psychological health. For instance, social self-efficacy has significant relationships with low social anxiety, low loneliness and social dissatisfaction (Rababah, 2016; Smith & Betz, 2000, 2002; Tarkhan et al., 2013), high self-esteem (Hermann & Betz, 2004, 2006; Raskauskas et al., 2015; Smith & Betz, 2000, 2002), and low depression (Ahmad et al., 2014; Bandura et al., 1999; Hermann & Betz, 2004, 2006; Smith & Betz, 2000, 2002). Thus, this study presented the following hypotheses:

Hypothesis 2 (H2): Social self-efficacy has a positive predictive relationship with self-esteem.

Hypothesis 3 (H3): Social self-efficacy has a negative predictive relationship with depression.

Classroom Emotional Climate and Psychological Health

Past studies have found that there is a deep connection between the sub-scales of classroom emotional climate and psychological health. For instance, a classroom climate that is safe, friendly, warm, supportive, and non-threatening can improve student academic achievements, develop higher self-esteem, and promote positive learning attitudes in students (Chionh & Fraser, 2009). Similarly, social support plays a very important role in coping efficacy, a sense of happiness, and psychological health (Harandi et al., 2017; Tan et al., 2018; Wei et al., 2003). Teachers’ instructional support or instructional suggestions can help make decisions and guide objectives, resulting in a sense of accomplishment and self-worth, as well as elevate the motivation and belief of success, so that students become more diligent about achieving their academic objectives. Without the support and acceptance of teachers and peers, the self-esteem of children and adolescents may be affected, resulting in depression (Chang et al., 2018; Killu & Crundwell, 2008; Liu, 2006). At the same time, if there is positive interaction between teachers and students, students who want to have friendships with peers can have positive effects on their behavior and adaptation (Baker, 2006; Davis, 2006). This shows that if students perceive more support from teachers, it will promote class–peer interaction, and that respectful instructional behaviors may influence psychological health. In sum, the classroom emotional climate may have different influences on personal psychological functions and adaptation. Thus, this study presented the following hypotheses:

Hypothesis 4 (H4): Classroom emotional climate has a positive predictive relationship with self-esteem.

Hypothesis 5 (H5): Classroom emotional climate has a negative predictive relationship with depression.

Self-Esteem and Depression

Self-esteem is a factor that can assist students in more positively interpreting matters and protecting themselves, and it will affect individual abilities in coping with potential stress events and outcomes (Chius, 2012). Previous studies have shown that there is a significant negative correlation between self-esteem and the perceived stress of university students (Chalise & Pandey, 2015; Dixon & Kurpius, 2008; Galanakis et al., 2016). Studies have also shown that people with high self-esteem can have more beneficial problem-solving and coping strategies such as proactive responses and planning (Bamuhair et al., 2015; Griva & Anagnostopoulus, 2010; Servidio et al., 2018). Depression can be seen as the manifestation of maladaptation to external stress, and studies have found that there is a significant negative correlation between self-esteem and depression (Dixon & Kurpius, 2008; Manna et al., 2016; Orth & Robins, 2013; Sowislo & Orth, 2013). Besides, in a meta-analysis of longitudinal study, self-esteem can negatively predict depression (Sowislo & Orth, 2013). Surprisingly, relatively few of the studies have focused on college students (Dixon & Kurpius, 2008). Therefore, this study will further use the sample of college students to explore the relationship between self-esteem and depression. Based on the above, this study put forth the following hypothesis:

Hypothesis 6 (H6): Self-esteem has a negative predictive relationship with depression.

Using the above literature data and hypotheses, this study formed the hypothetical model shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1.

Hypothetical model.

Method

Participants

This study treated university students as the pretest participants and obtained 216 valid questionnaires. Among the respondents, 116 were men (53.7%) and 100 were women (46.3%). The formal research participants in this study were found via convenience sampling in three universities in northern Taiwan. A total of 450 questionnaires were released, and the completion of the questionnaire required 15 min. After the questionnaires were retrieved, blank and center-leaning invalid questionnaires were discarded, resulting in 392 valid questionnaires. Among the valid questionnaires, 146 were from Aletheia University (37.2%), 127 were from Taipei College of Maritime Technology (32.4%), and 119 were from National Taipei College of Business (30.4%). In addition, 237 respondents were men (60.5%) and 155 were women (39.5%). Regarding the year of study, 98 of the respondents were freshmen (25.0%), 105 were sophomores (26.8%), 91 were juniors (23.2%), and 98 were seniors (25.0%). The main age group was 18 to 22 years, which conformed to the requirement of university students in this study.

Measures

Classroom Emotional Climate Scale

The classroom emotional climate scale was compiled after referring to the supportive climate scale by Landau and Meirovich (2011), the class social environment concept scale by Patrick et al. (2007), and the class social environment scale by Ryan and Patrick (2001). There were 12 questions in the scale, and the answers were scored using a Likert-type 6-point scale (with scores ranging from 1 = does not conform at all to 6 = completely conforms). The Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin (KMO) measure of sampling adequacy was 0.87 and the Bartlett test of sphericity of χ²(66) = 2,330.03 (p < .001), which showed a good fit. A total of factors were found: teachers’ academic support (three questions), promotion of interaction (three questions), promotion of mutual respect (three questions), and respect for viewpoints (three questions), which could explain 74.48% of the variance. Teachers’ academic support referred to the academic support that teachers can provide to students. Promotion of interaction referred to teachers being able to promote peer social interaction in academic tasks. Promotion of mutual respect referred to teachers being able to promote mutual respect among peers. Respect for viewpoints referred to the mutual respect for the views of others among teachers and students in class. The internal consistency Cronbach’s alpha coefficient of all questions in the classroom emotional climate scale was .89, and the sub-scale’s internal consistency alpha coefficients were .88, .84, .85, and .70, which showed that this scale had good reliability. The items of classroom emotional climate scale shown in appendix.

Social Self-Efficacy Scale

This study referred to the social self-efficacy with the teacher sub-scale and the social self-efficacy with peers sub-scale by Patrick et al. (2007), as well as the adolescent social self-efficacy evaluation dimensions proposed by Bandura et al. (1996). The dimensions included the maintenance of social relationships, cooperating in work with others, and being able to manage different types of interpersonal conflicts, as well as the questions in the scale of perceived social self-efficacy (PSSE) by Smith and Betz (2000). Social self-efficacy refers to students’ social skill judgment on successful interaction with peers and teachers. This scale contained eight questions that were scored using a Likert-type 6-point scale (with scores ranging from 1 = does not conform at all to 6 = completely conforms). The KMO measure of sampling adequacy was 0.91 and the Bartlett test of sphericity of χ²(28) = 2,045.29 (p < .001), meaning the scale was suitable for factor analysis. A total of two factors were derived: social self-efficacy with teachers (four questions), and social self-efficacy with peers (four questions), which could explain 75.59% of the variance. The internal consistency Cronbach’s alpha coefficient of all questions in the social self-efficacy scale was .91, and the sub-scale’s internal consistency α coefficients were .87 and .91, which showed that the scale had good reliability. The items of social self-efficacy scale shown in appendix.

Rosenberg’s Self-Esteem Scale

This study used the self-esteem scale compiled by Rosenberg (1965) as the measurement tool. The scale had 10 questions (5 positive and 5 negative). The scale was scored using a Likert-type 6-point scale (with scores ranging from 1 = does not conform at all to 6 = completely conforms). Confirmatory factor analysis was performed to extract one factor dimension, which could explain 51.01% of the whole variance, and the factor loadings of questions in the self-esteem scale were all greater than .56. The scale’s internal consistency Cronbach’s alpha coefficient was .89, which showed that the scale had good reliability.

Taiwanese Depression Questionnaire

The Taiwanese depression questionnaire (TDQ) is a self-reported depression questionnaire on the symptoms of depression that is widely used in Taiwan. The questionnaire has a total of 18 questions. The questionnaire has good internal consistency reliability and validity, and as it is concerned with local traits, it contains many terms that have cultural characteristics (Lee et al., 2000). The scale was scored using a Likert-type 4-point scale (with scores ranging from 1 = none/extremely low to 4 = frequently/always). Confirmatory factor analysis was used to extract one factor dimension, which could explain 46.74%, of the total variance. The factor loadings of the questions were all greater than .52, and the internal consistency Cronbach’s alpha coefficient of all questions in the Taiwanese depression questionnaire was .93, which showed that the scale had good reliability.

Data Analysis

This study had a cross-sectional design and included having the participants complete a paper-and-pencil self-report survey. To achieve the results of this study, the descriptive statistical data were obtained from the self-reported classroom emotional climate, social self-efficacy, self-esteem, and depression scales filled out by the students. Bivariate correlations were used to evaluate the correlations among the predictor variable, the intervening variable, and the outcome variable. Structure equation modeling using AMOS 25.0 was then employed to assess the relationships between the predictor variable, the intervening variable, and the outcome variables.

This study sought to explore the correlations among the four variables of classroom emotional climate, social self-efficacy, self-esteem, and depression, to construct a hypothetical model that had the outcome measures of self-esteem and depression. The intervening variable was social self-efficacy. The predictor variable was classroom emotional climate. Based on a literature analysis, this study assumed that the three variables of classroom emotional climate, social self-efficacy, and self-esteem could all significantly predict depression, and assumed that classroom emotional climate and social self-efficacy could both significantly predict self-esteem. Finally, this study assumed that classroom emotional climate could significantly predict social self-efficacy. The parameter estimation method in the hypothetical model of this study was the maximum likelihood approach, and the indices used to determine the model fit included chi-square, goodness-of-fit index (GFI), comparative fit index (CFI), and root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA). The standard for chi-square value is that it cannot exceed 3 (Bagozzi & Yi, 1988), and for the other indices, the GFI index must be greater than .9 (Hu & Bentler, 1999), the CFI index must be greater than .95 (Bentler, 1988), and the RMSEA index must be under .08 (Browne & Cudeck, 1993). The predictive ability of the model was evaluated based on the path coefficients and the R² values.

Results

The normal distribution testing of the variables in this study was conducted using the skew coefficients and kurtosis coefficients of the variables. All of the skew coefficients and kurtosis coefficients of the variables were between ±3. Finally, AMOS 25.0 statistical software was used to conduct path analysis on the correlations among the four variables of classroom emotional climate, social self-efficacy, self-esteem, and depression. The confirmatory factor analysis on the four factors of classroom emotional climate showed that χ²/48 (n = 392) = 2.437, p = .000, GFI = .957, CFI = .969, and RMSEA = .061, which indicated an ideal model fit. The confirmatory factor analysis on the two factors of social self-efficacy showed that χ²/19 (n = 392) = 2.234, p = .002, GFI = .975, CFI = .989, and RMSEA = .056, which also indicated an ideal model fit.

Descriptive Statistics

Table 1 shows the means, standard deviations, skew coefficients, kurtosis coefficients, and correlation coefficients of the variables and sub-scales. This study further conducted a normal distribution test for the variables, finding that the skew coefficients and kurtosis coefficients in the four variable sub-scales of classroom emotional climate, social self-efficacy, self-esteem, and depression were all within the normal range. On the whole, the path models constructed in this study could be further analyzed. The data in the chart indicate that the correlation coefficients among the variables generally reached the level of significance. For instance, teachers’ academic support, promotion of interaction, promotion of mutual respect, respect for viewpoints, social self-efficacy with teachers, social self-efficacy with peers, and self-esteem all had significant positive correlations. At the same time, promotion of mutual respect, respect for viewpoints, social self-efficacy with teachers, social self-efficacy with peers, and self-esteem had significant negative correlations with depression. There were no significant correlations between teachers’ academic support, promotion of interaction, and depression. Further analysis found that classroom emotional climate and social self-efficacy (r = .58, p < .001) and self-esteem (r = .25, p < .001) had significant positive relationships. There was a significant positive correlation between social self-efficacy and self-esteem (r = .42, p < .001), and classroom emotional climate (r = –.11, p < .05), social self-efficacy (r = –.30, p < .001), and self-esteem (r = –.53, p < .001) all had significant negative correlations with depression.

Table 1.

Summary of Descriptive Statistics and Correlation Coefficients.

Variables	M	SD	Skew coefficient	Kurtosis coefficients	1.	2.	3.	4.	5.	6.	7.	8.
1. Teachers’ academic support	12.57	2.76	−0.47	0.91	1.00
2. Promotion of interaction	13.32	2.70	−0.60	1.49	.50***	1.00
3. Promotion of mutual respect	13.55	2.54	−0.20	0.10	.48***	.55***	1.00
4. Respect for viewpoints	13.20	2.45	−0.45	0.87	.46***	.49***	.54***	1.00
5. Social efficacy with teachers	15.74	3.67	−0.35	0.65	.53***	.42***	.45***	.47***	1.00
6. Social efficacy with peers	16.91	3.79	−0.39	0.85	.37***	.30***	.39***	.35***	.62***	1.00
7. Self-esteem	40.83	8.60	−0.01	0.42	.19***	.17***	.24***	.21***	.33***	.43***	1.00
8. Depression	30.45	10.13	1.06	1.34	−.09	−.03	−.12*	−.13*	−.23***	−.31***	−.53***	1.00

p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .001.

Testing the Hypotheses

The hypothetical model proposed in this study was a saturated model. Therefore, this study first evaluated the standardized regression coefficients among variables, finding that the regression coefficient of classroom emotional climate predicting self-esteem (.016) and depression (.101) did not reach the level of significance. Thus, this study deleted the path coefficient of classroom emotional climate predicting self-esteem and depression for model modification. The resulting modified model fit values were χ²(2, n = 392) = 1.936, p = .144, GFI = .995, CFI = .995, and RMSEA = .049, which indicated an ideal model fit, as shown in Figure 2. The direct effects in this research model were ranked as follows: the direct effect of self-esteem on depression (–.582), the direct effect of social self-efficacy on self-esteem (.543), the direct effect of classroom emotional climate on social self-efficacy (.466), and the direct effect of social self-efficacy on depression (–.142). The indirect effects in this research model were ranked as follows: the indirect effect of classroom emotional climate on self-esteem (.244), the indirect effect of social self-efficacy on depression is (–.209), and the indirect effect of classroom emotional climate on depression (–.174). In addition, the amount of variance in university student depression that could be explained was 29.2%, the amount of variance in self-esteem that could be explained was 17.9%, and the amount of variance in social self-efficacy that could be explained was 33.1%.

Figure 2.

Modified path analysis of emotional climate social self-efficacy, and psychological health of university students.

The above structural equation model analysis of whether the regression coefficients were significant showed that it could be used to validate the hypotheses proposed in this study. The results showed that classroom emotional climate had a positive predictive relationship (H1) with social self-efficacy, and that social self-efficacy had a positive predictive relationship (H2) with self-esteem. Social self-efficacy had a negative predictive relationship (H3) on depression, and self-esteem had a negative predictive relationship (H6) on depression. The above hypotheses all received support. However, the evidence did not support that classroom emotional climate has a positive predictive relationship (H4) with self-esteem, or that classroom emotional climate has a negative predictive relationship (H5) on depression.

Mediation Analysis

Further evaluation of the relationships among classroom emotional climate, social self-efficacy, and self-esteem showed that significant direct effects existed between classroom emotional climate and social self-efficacy (γ = .576, p < .001) as well as between social self-efficacy and self-esteem (γ = .423, p < .001). However, after social self-efficacy entered the model in the significant positive correlation between classroom emotional climate and self-esteem, the predictive effect between classroom emotional climate and self-esteem (γ = .016, p > .05) became insignificant. Further analysis showed a significant indirect effect of social self-efficacy in the relationship between classroom emotional climate and self-esteem (z = 7.63, p < .001). These results showed that social self-efficacy had a complete intervening effect between classroom emotional climate and self-esteem. More importantly, classroom emotional climate could explain 93.84% of the variance in self-esteem through the intervening variable of social self-efficacy (Iacobucci, 2008, pp. 21–22). This shows that classroom emotional climate must influence self-esteem through social self-efficacy. Therefore, teachers must first elevate their students’ social self-efficacy before the students can elevate their self-esteem.

This study further evaluated the correlations among classroom emotional climate, social self-efficacy, and depression, finding that significant direct effects exist between classroom emotional climate and social self-efficacy (γ = .576, p < .001) as well as between social self-efficacy and depression (γ = –.094, p < .05). However, after social self-efficacy entered the model in the significant negative correlation between classroom emotional climate and depression, the predictive effect between classroom emotional climate and depression (γ = –.101, p < .05) became insignificant. Further analysis showed a significant indirect effect of social self-efficacy in the relationship between classroom emotional climate and depression (z = 5.69, p < .001). These results showed that social self-efficacy had a complete intervening effect between classroom emotional climate and depression. More importantly, classroom emotional climate could explain 34.90% of the variance in depression through the intervening variable of social self-efficacy (Iacobucci, 2008, pp. 21–22). This indicated that classroom emotional climate must influence depression through social self-efficacy. Therefore, teachers must first elevate their students’ self-efficacy before student depression can be reduced.

Discussion

Many previous studies have explored how teachers can improve the learning behavior of students and elevate their academic achievements, but few have focused on the influence of teacher behavior in the classroom psychological and social climate on student social skills and psychological health. This study developed a model for the influence of environmental and motivational factors in psychological health, to analyze the two predictive factors of class context and personal efficacy motivation and how they influence the psychological health of university students in Taiwan. The results from this study not only provided empirical support for how concrete teacher behaviors influence student social skills and psychological health but also expanded the understanding of how the classroom emotional climate influences self-esteem and depression. The fit indices for the path analysis model in this study showed that the model was acceptable, and the correlations among variables could be explained by the model. On the whole, the hypothetical model proposed by this study showed that classroom emotional climate could significantly affect social self-efficacy, that social self-efficacy could significantly predict self-esteem and depression, and that self-esteem could also significantly predict depression. Most of the hypotheses in this study were supported, other than there was no significant correlation between classroom emotional climate, self-esteem, and depression. It was worth noting that classroom emotional climate could produce significant complete intervening effects on self-esteem and depression through social self-efficacy.

This study had five main contributions. First, the classroom emotional climate is composed of psychological and social environmental factors, which are again comprised of the four dimensions of positive teachers’ academic support, promotion of interaction, promotion of mutual respect, and respect for viewpoints. These results could be provided as a reference for teachers in creating positive class social environments. Next, the positive psychological and social classroom climate created by teachers could be used as a way to elevate the social interaction skills of university students in the future. Third, there were significant correlations between the motivating features of personal social techniques and psychological health, which could be significantly meaningful for the treatment of depression. Fourth, the results of this study could be used to explain the influential mechanisms between classroom emotional climate and the psychological health of university students in self-esteem and depression. Finally, personal self-esteem could buffer the symptoms of high depression.

Since classroom emotional climate in this study included the four measurement indicators of teacher’s academic support, promotion of interaction, promotion of mutual respect, and respect for viewpoints, it provided identifiable and concrete teacher behavior signals relevant to the concepts of student psychological health, as well as manifested important information about which concrete teacher behaviors could form positive classroom psychological and social environments. A careful comparison between the classroom social environment concept scale by Patrick et al. (2007) and the classroom social environment scale by Ryan and Patrick (2001) showed that in this study, classroom emotional climate did not include the concept of teacher emotional support. The concept of the promotion of respect in the classroom emotional climate was also divided into the promotion of mutual respect and respect for viewpoints. The promotion of mutual respect had a passive suppression effect, while respect for viewpoints had an active cultivation effect.

Thus, to elevate the scores for the perceived classroom emotional climate of students, it was suggested that teachers should give students positive and suitable academic expectations and support, as well as be concerned with the learning conditions of the students to help them learn; at the same time, teachers should also encourage students to understand and assist each other. Furthermore, in promoting respectful classroom climates, teachers and students should not be permitted to belittle other students, and classmates should be prevented from saying negative things about others. Teachers should also proactively encourage and respect students when they express their own ideas, in the hope that students will encourage each other in outstanding performance.

Next, the path analysis model in this study showed that university student perceptions of positive classroom emotional climate had a positive prediction effect on social self-efficacy. This indicated that creating a positive classroom emotional climate could develop university student social skills, thus supporting H1 in this study. It was worth noting that previous studies have generally explored the component concepts of classroom emotional climate separately, such as the relationships among teacher support, the promotion of interaction, mutual respect, and social self-efficacy (Harvey et al., 2016; Mallinckrodt & Wei, 2005; Meirovich, 2012; Patrick et al., 2007; Ryan & Patrick, 2001), but few studies have integrated discussion of the relationship between diverse classroom social environment concepts and social self-efficacy. The results of this study supported a multifaceted structure of the classroom emotional climate, with strong connections to the social self-efficacy of university students. This could be used by teachers to help university students in the successful creation and maintenance of social interaction with teachers and peers, thus avoiding the high social anxiety, loneliness, and dissatisfaction of students found with common class management methods.

Conversely, this study did not find that the classroom emotional climate could positively significantly predict self-esteem or negatively significantly predict depression, and it therefore could not support H4 and H5. These results did not conform to the previously discussed literature on self-esteem and depression (Chang et al., 2018). Although the analytical results of this study showed that there was a positive correlation between classroom emotional climate and self-esteem, and that there was a negative correlation with depression, the direct effect in the path analysis model was not significant. This was primarily because in the relationships between classroom emotional climate and self-esteem and depression, social self-efficacy had a significant intervening effect.

Third, social self-efficacy is not only related to effective social behavior but has also been widely applied to psychological adaptation and psychological health. The results of this study found that social self-efficacy could significantly predict psychological health, thus supporting H2 and H3. Furthermore, conforming to the previous literature, social self-efficacy could significantly and positively predict self-esteem (Hermann & Betz, 2004, 2006; Raskauskas et al., 2015; Smith & Betz, 2000, 2002) and negatively predict depression (Ahmad et al., 2014; Bandura et al., 1999; Hermann & Betz, 2004, 2006; Smith & Betz, 2000, 2002). In the context of peer interaction, university students with low social self-efficacy may have higher social anxiety, loneliness, and dissatisfaction (Rababah, 2016; Smith & Betz, 2000, 2002; Tarkhan et al., 2013), which could be used to explain why students with lower social self-efficacy would perceive lower self-esteem and higher depression. Concretely speaking, the elevation of student social self-efficacy could elevate their self-esteem and lower their depression. Bandura (1997) identified four sources of self-efficacy beliefs: past proficient experiences, substitution experiences, verbal persuasion, and biological and emotional states. Proficient experience in the past is the most influential source of efficacy beliefs; if university students have successful experiences in interacting with teachers and peers, then they may have greater social self-efficacy. Substitution experience is a method of learning through observations of others. In the contexts of university students, social behavior information learned from teacher modeling and peer interaction is an important factor in elevating social self-efficacy. Third, without direct experiences, the effect of verbal persuasion will be more significant. Thus, communication with teachers and students will also influence social self-efficacy. Peers or teachers can express support and positive attitudes, helping students to express high social self-efficacy. Finally, the weakest sources of influence are biological and emotional states. When students perceive that they will experience negative responses or anxiety when dealing with peers and teachers, they may interpret it as an indicator of low social interaction ability; therefore, when students interact with new teachers or other peers, their anxiety and worry about adaptation should be lowered. A possible method for this is to create positive psychological and social classroom climates.

Fourth, it was worth noting that students’ personal social technique motivation features had significant intervening effects on the psychological and social environment of the classes and individual psychological health. These results provided a better understanding of how classroom emotional climate influences self-esteem and depression. In other words, the classroom emotional climate can only influence self-esteem and depression through social self-efficacy. This also indicated that the correlations among classroom emotional climate and self-esteem, and classroom emotional climate and depression were based on the level of student social self-efficacy. Thus, when teachers create positive classroom emotional climates, they should more effectively elevate the social skills of university students with regard to teacher and peer interaction, to improve self-esteem and suppress depression. Future studies could establish experimental projects on the social self-efficacy of university students to analyze the effect of this project and to promote the psychological health of university students. A careful comparison of the intervening effects of classroom emotional climate for self-esteem and depression found that the classroom emotional climate acts through social self-efficacy to elevate the indirect effect of self-esteem, which is greater than the indirect effect of acting through social self-efficacy to buffer student depression. These results indicated that even though social self-efficacy has a buffering effect on student depression, it has a greater effect on elevating student self-esteem.

Similarly, Chius (2012) believed that if an individual does not believe one is capable, important, or valuable, there will be stress. In other words, people with low self-esteem will have avoidance behavior such as escapism or negative responses. Concretely speaking, when facing high stress, people with high self-esteem will alleviate the symptoms of depression; this also showed that low self-esteem may be a risk factor for depression. Furthermore, when facing high stress contexts, under the conditions of high perceived stress, university students with high self-esteem may alleviate their depression symptoms. Thus, the results of this study supported H6, that self-esteem has a negative predictive relationship with depression.

Directions for Future Research

As the main purpose of this study was to explore the correlations among classroom emotional climate, social self-efficacy, self-esteem, and depression, the subjects were students. However, whether the emotional atmosphere in class is also present in the learning context is worthy of exploration. In other words, the leadership behavior of the principals may also create different campus climates. Future studies should analyze how the environmental conditions of psychological and social dimensions affect teachers. Next, it is important to analyze the effect of the family emotional climate on the psychological health of university students, which could help understand whether the family emotional climate could elevate the social skills and psychological health of university students. Furthermore, it is also possible to simultaneously compare the influence of family and school emotional climate on the efficacy motives and psychological health of university students. Third, future studies could also analyze the effect of classroom emotional climate on the academic accomplishments of students and explore possible influential factors between them such as academic motives, academic involvement, and academic burnout. Finally, future studies could consider social self-efficacy prevention and treatment projects in the classroom context, to serve as a feasible reference for elevating self-esteem and reducing the depression of students in the future.

Limitations

Although this study was important and significant, there were certain limitations. First, the cross-sectional research nature of this study could only provide correlational research results, and it was therefore inadequate for depicting causal relationship deductions. It was suggested that experimental methods should be used to explore the causal analysis of whether elevating classroom emotional climate and social self-efficacy could effectively elevate self-esteem and reduce depression, to more precisely analyze the class environment and personal efficacy motive factors that may affect self-esteem and depression. Next, this study used convenience sampling from university students in three northern universities in Taiwan, and there were more male than female participants. The applicability of the research results to other samples will require caution. Perhaps future studies could expand the scope and number of the research sample to verify the results of this study.

Footnotes

Appendix

Social Self-Efficacy Scale.

1.	If the teacher is angry with me I can usually deal with it
2.	I find that it is easy to approach and talk to the teacher
3.	I am confident that I can express my views about topics I am interested in to my teacher.
4.	When I need it, I am confident that I can ask the teacher for help
5.	I think that it is easy to get along with my classmates
6.	I can learn well with my classmates
7.	I am confident that I can express my views about topics I am interested in to my classmates
8.	I am confident that I can share an interesting experience I had in the past with most classmates

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

ORCID iD

Fu-Yuan Hong

Author Biographies

Fu-Yuan Hong is a distinguished professor in Graduate Institute of Professional Development in Education and Dean of Student Affairs, based at Da-Yeh University. His research has focused primarily on issues associated with high maintenance behaviour, facebook addiction, mobile phone addiction and the use of smart phones.

Shao-I Chiu is an associate professor in Graduate Institute of Professional Development in Education, based at Da-Yeh University. His research has focused primarily on issues associated with high maintenance behaviour, facebook addiction, mobile phone addiction, and smartphone game addiction. Theoretical basis of pedagogy and the use of smart phones.

Der-Hsiang Huang is a professor in Graduate Institute of Professional Development in Education, Da-Yeh University. His research field is educational psychology and related educational issues, such as teacher education and educational leaderships. He is a famous researcher in adolescent psychology and counseling in Taiwan.

Su-Lin Chiu is a retired assistant professor in General Education Department, based at Taipei University of Marine Technology. Her research has focused primarily on issues associated with facebook addiction, mobile phone addiction and the use of smart phones.

References

Ahmad

Z. R.

Yasien

Ahmad

(2014). Relationship between perceived social self-efficacy and depression in adolescents. Iranian Journal of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, 8(3), 65–74.

Bagozzi

R. P.

(1988). On the evaluation of structural equation models. Academy of Marketing Science, 16, 76–94.

Baker

J. A.

(2006). Contributions of teacher–child relationships to positive school adjustment during elementary school. Journal of School Psychology, 44, 211–229.

Bamuhair

S. S.

Farhan

A. I. A.

Althubaiti

Agha

Rahman

Ibrahim

N. O.

(2015). Sources of stress and coping strategies among undergraduate medical students enrolled in a problem-based learning curriculum. Journal of Biomedical Education, 2015, Article 575139.

Bandura

(1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. Freeman.

Bandura

Barbaranelli

Caprara

G. V.

Pastorelli

(1996). Multifaceted impact of self-efficacy belief on academic functioning. Child Development, 67, 1206–1222.

Bandura

Pastorelli

Barbaranelli

Caprara

G. V.

(1999). Self efficacy pathways to childhood depression. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 76, 258–269.

Barr

J. J.

(2017). Developing a positive classroom climate (IDEA paper #61). https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Jason_Barr4/publication/312021719_Developing_a_Positive_Classroom_Climate/links/58694b5f08aebf17d3a3a78c/Developing-a-Positive-Classroom-Climate.pdf?origin=publication_detail

Bentler

P. M.

(1988). Theory and implementation of EQS: A structural equations program. SAGE.

10.

Blankemeyer

Flannery

D. J.

Vazsonyi

A. T.

(2002). The role of aggression and social competence in children’s perceptions of the child-teacher relationship. Psychology in the Schools, 39(3), 293–304.

11.

Brackett

M. A.

Reyes

M. R.

Rivers

S. E.

Elbertson

N. A.

Salovey

(2011). Classroom emotional climate, teacher affiliation, and student conduct. Journal of Classroom Interaction, 46(1), 27–36.

12.

Browne

M. W.

Cudeck

(1993). Alternative ways of assessing model fit. In Bollen

K. A.

Long

J. S.

(Eds.), Testing structural equation models (pp. 136–162). SAGE.

13.

Chalise

H. N.

Pandey

R. A.

(2015). Self-esteem and academic stress among nursing students. Kathmandu University Medical Journal, 52(4), 298–302.

14.

Chang

C.-W.

Yuan

Chen

J.-K.

(2018). Social support and depression among Chinese adolescents: The mediating roles of self-esteem and self-efficacy. Children and Youth Services Review, 88, 128–134.

15.

Chionh

Y. H.

Fraser

B. J.

(2009). Classroom environment, achievement, attitudes and self-esteem in geography and mathematics in Singapore. International Research in Geographical and Environmental Education, 18(1), 29–44.

16.

Chius

(2012). Does self-esteem moderate the relations among perceived stress, coping, and depression? College Student Journal, 46(1), 149–157.

17.

Davis

H. A.

(2006). Exploring the contexts of relationship quality between middle school students and teachers. The Elementary School Journal: Special Issue on the Interpersonal Contexts of Motivation and Learning, 106, 193–223.

18.

Dixon

S. K.

Kurpius

S. E. R.

(2008). Depression and college stress among university undergraduates: Do mattering and self-esteem make a difference? Journal of College Student Development, 49, 412–424.

19.

Galanakis

Palaiologou

Patsi

Velegraki

I.-M.

Darviri

(2016). A literature review on the connection between stress and self-esteem. Psychology, 7, 687–694.

20.

Griva

Anagnostopoulus

(2010). Positive psychological states and anxiety: The mediating effect of proactive coping. Psychological Reports, 107, 795–804.

21.

Harandi

T. F.

Taghinasab

M. M.

Nayeri

T. D.

(2017). The correlation of social support with mental health: A meta-analysis. Electron Physician, 9(9), 5212–5222.

22.

Harvey

S. T.

Evans

I. M.

Hill

R. V. J.

Henricksen

Bimler

(2016). Warming the emotional Climate of the classroom: Can teachers’ social-emotional skills change? The International Journal of Emotional Education, 8(2), 70–87.

23.

Hermann

K. S.

Betz

N. E.

(2004). Path models of the relationships of instrumentality and expressiveness to social self-efficacy, shyness, and depressive symptoms. Sex Roles, 51, 55–67.

24.

Hermann

K. S.

Betz

N. E.

(2006). Path models of the relationships of instrumentality and expressiveness, social self-efficacy and self-esteem to depressive symptoms in college students. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 25, 1086–1106.

25.

L. T.

Bentler

P. M.

(1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling, 6, 1–55.

26.

Iacobucci

(2008). Mediation analysis. SAGE.

27.

Iskender

Akin

(2010). Social self-efficacy, academic locus of control, and internet addiction. Computers & Education, 54, 1101–1106.

28.

Killu

Crundwell

(2008). Understanding and developing academic and behavior interventions for students with bipolar disorder. Intervention in School and Clinic, 43, 244–251.

29.

Landau

Meirovich

(2011). Development of students’ emotional intelligence: Participative classroom environments in higher education. Academy of Educational Leadership Journal, 15(3), 89–104.

30.

Lee

Yang

M. J.

Lai

T. J.

Chiu

N. M.

Chau

T. T.

(2000). Development of the Taiwanese depression questionnaire. Chang Gung Medical Journal, 23, 688–694.

31.

Liu

Y.-L.

(2006). Paternal/maternal attachment, peer support social expectations of peer interaction, and depressive symptoms. Adolescence, 41, 705–721.

32.

Mallinckrodt

Wei

(2005). Attachment, social competencies, social support, and psychological distress. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 52, 358–367.

33.

Manna

Falgares

Ingoglia

Como

M. R.

Santis

S. D.

(2016). The relationship between self-esteem, depression and anxiety: Comparing vulnerability and scar model in the Italian context. Mediterranean Journal of Clinical Psychology, 4(3), 1–17.

34.

Matsushima

(2016). The relationship between situational change and selectiveness in friendships for adjustment to the university. International Journal of Adolescence and Youth, 21(3), 356–368.

35.

Maxwell

Reynolds

K. J.

Lee

Subasic

Bromhead

(2017). The impact of school climate and school identification on academic achievement: Multilevel modeling with student and teacher data. Frontiers in Psychology, 8, 1–23.

36.

Meirovich

(2012). Creating a favorable emotional climate in the classroom. The International Journal of Management Education, 10, 169–177.

37.

Minter

Pritzker

(2015). Measuring adolescent social and academic self-efficacy: Cross-ethnic validity of the SEQ-C. Research on Social Work Practice, 27(7), 1–9.

38.

Orth

Robins

R. W.

(2013). Understanding the link between low self-esteem and depression. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 22, 455–460.

39.

Patrick

Ryan

A. M.

Kaplan

(2007). Early adolescents’ perceptions of the classroom social environment, motivational beliefs, and engagement. Journal of Educational Psychology, 99, 83–98.

40.

Rababah

M. M. S.

. (2016). Social self-efficacy and its relationship with both depression and anxiety, stress among a sample of Jadara University students. Journal of Education and Practice, 7(35), 84–89.

41.

Raskauskas

Rubiano

Offen

Wayland

A. K.

(2015). Do social self-efficacy and self-esteem moderate the relationship between peer victimization and academic performance? Social Psychology of Education, 18, 297–314.

42.

Reinke

W. M.

Herman

K. C.

(2002). Creating school environment that deter antisocial behaviors in youth. Psychology in the Schools, 39, 549–559.

43.

Reyes

M. R.

Brackett

M. A.

Rivers

S. E.

White

Salovey

(2012). Classroom emotional climate, student engagement, and academic achievement. Journal of Educational Psychology, 104(3), 700–712.

44.

Rosenberg

(1965). Society and the adolescent self-image. Princeton University Press.

45.

Ruzek

E. A.

Hafen

C. A.

Allen

J. P.

Gregory

Mikami

A. Y.

Pianta

R. C.

(2016). How teacher emotional support motivates students: The mediating roles of perceived peer relatedness, autonomy support, and competence. Learning and Instruction, 42, 95–103.

46.

Ryan

A. M.

Patrick

(2001). The classroom social environment and changes in adolescents' motivation and engagement during middle school. American Educational Research Journal, 38(2), 437–460.

47.

Servidio

Gentile

Boca

(2018). The mediational role of coping strategies in the relationship between self-esteem and risk of internet addiction. Europe’s Journal of Psychology, 14(1), 176–187.

48.

Smith

H. M.

Betz

N. E.

(2000). Development and validation of a scale of perceived social self-efficacy. Journal of Career Assessment, 8, 283–301.

49.

Smith

H. M.

Betz

N. E.

(2002). An examination of efficacy and esteem pathways to depression in young adulthood. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 49, 438–448.

50.

Sowislo

J. F.

Orth

(2013). Does low self-esteem predict depression and anxiety? A meta-analysis of longitudinal studies. Psychological Bulletin, 139(1), 213–240.

51.

Swenson

L. M.

Nordstrom

Hiester

(2008). The role of peer relationships in adjustment to college. Journal of College Student Development, 49(6), 551–567.

52.

Tan

C.-S.

Low

S.-K.

Viapude

G. N.

(2018). Extraversion and happiness: The mediating role of social support and hope. PsyCh Journal, 7(3), 133–143.

53.

Tarkhan

Esmaeilpour

Tizdast

(2013). A study of the relationship between social anxiety, social self-efficacy and body image in the girl students of the Islamic Azad University at Tonekabon Branch. European Online Journal of Natural and Social Sciences, 2(4), 510–515.

54.

Thapa

Cohen

Guffey

Higgins-D’Alessandro

(2013). A review of school climate research. Review of Educational Research, 83(3), 357–385.

55.

Uslu

Gizir

(2016). School belonging of adolescents: The role of teacher–student relationships, peer relationships and family involvement. Educational Sciences: Theory & Practice, 16, 21–40.

56.

Wei

M. F.

Heppner

P. P.

Mallinckrodt

(2003). Perceived coping as a mediator between attachment and psychological distress: A structural equation modeling approach. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 50(4), 438–447.