Embracing Diversity in the Classroom: Teachers’ Perceptions on Culturally Responsive Classroom Practices in Türkiye

Introduction

Culturally Responsive Pedagogy (CRP) emerges as a powerful framework for enriching education in today’s diverse classrooms. Gay (2002) defines CRP as the integration of cultural backgrounds, life experiences, and perspectives of students from various backgrounds as vehicles for teaching. However, it is important to note that CRP extends beyond teaching; it represents a deliberate effort to achieve equity and justice in education for diverse learners (Sleeter, 2012). Grounded in democratic ideals, CRP mainly aims to cultivate inclusive classroom and school environments while establishing high academic expectations for all students through active engagement in the educational process (Vavrus, 2008). As Villegas and Lucas (2002) emphasize, to become culturally responsive, teachers should be conscious of the existence of multiple perspectives and understandings, endorse positive beliefs about students from diverse backgrounds rather than viewing differences as deficiencies, and facilitate the students’ way of constructing knowledge.

Different conceptualizations of CRP exist in the literature. Gay’s (2002) framework emphasizes five key aspects defining culturally relevant teaching, including (a) gaining an understanding of cultural diversity, (b) integrating content related to cultural diversity into the curriculum, (c) demonstrating empathy and fostering supportive learning environments for all learners, (d) engaging in effective communication with students from diverse backgrounds, and (e) adapting instructional methods to accommodate diversity. Ladson-Billings’s (2014) model, on the other hand, highlights the broader goals of CRP, such as promoting students’ academic success, fostering cultural competence, and nurturing sociopolitical consciousness. Both frameworks require teachers to possess awareness, certain beliefs, knowledge, and skills and engage in specific inclusive teaching practices to fulfill their roles as culturally responsive teachers. The present qualitative inquiry, drawing primarily upon these frameworks, explores teachers’ perceptions and practices related to CRP in the educational context of Türkiye.

Research indicates that teachers implement various strategies to promote the academic achievement of diverse students. These efforts include, but are not limited to, fostering collaboration among students (Stuart & Volk, 2002), setting clearly defined expectations (D. F. Brown, 2003; Hollie, 2001), and closely monitoring student learning (Gutiérrez, 2000; Jiménez & Gersten, 1999). Related studies suggest that even small efforts, such as being accessible after school (Gutiérrez, 2000; Lipman, 1995) and creating safe, nurturing classroom environments (D. F. Brown, 2003; Parsons, 2005), can lead to significant improvements in student learning. To illustrate, Sheets (1995) shared findings on how she helped her Latin students improve their AP Spanish test scores. She designed assignments that leveraged students’ existing verbal abilities through oral evaluations until they became proficient in reading and writing assessments.

Regarding developing cultural competence, research highlights teachers’ efforts to incorporate materials and subjects that are not included in the Eurocentric curriculum (Arce, 2004; Hastie et al., 2006), use cultural objects as math manipulatives (Cahnmann & Remillard, 2002), and provide opportunities for students to attend cultural events (Sheets, 1995). Feger’s (2006) study offers an example of how cultural and ethnic identities are represented in a classroom with immigrant students from the Caribbean, Central America, and South America.

Previous research has also shown that teachers employ various strategies to foster students’ critical consciousness, such as reading texts with critical perspectives (Hickling-Hudson & Ahlquist, 2003) and using alternative reading materials instead of relying solely on curricular texts to encourage students to question hegemonic perspectives (Arce, 2004). For example, Ensign (2003) documented the experiences of a teacher who used real-world mathematical applications to help students critically examine social justice issues, such as questioning price differences for the same products in different stores or why certain items are not sold individually.

Taking a holistic approach to CRP, the literature affirms its positive contributions to various processes at both the school and classroom levels. For example, a quantitative study on student perceptions of their teachers’ CRP practices (Byrd, 2016) reported a positive relationship between students’ academic achievement and culturally relevant classroom practices. Students reported that the use of CRP strategies increased their interest in school, ultimately leading to greater participation, enhanced peer interaction, and reduced prejudice in the classroom. Nonetheless, the limited availability and effectiveness of multicultural professional development have hindered teachers’ ability to view their students through a culturally diverse lens, thereby negatively affecting the academic achievement of students from different cultural backgrounds (Gagnon & Mattingly, 2018; Patel et al., 2016; Pierce, 2017).

Method

Participants

The participants were purposefully selected from classroom teachers employed in public schools in Gaziantep, a city located at the crossroads of the Mediterranean and Southeastern Anatolia regions of Türkiye. According to the data from the Directorate of Migration Management (2023), Türkiye hosts a considerable population of 3,288,755 Syrian immigrants, with Gaziantep emerging as the second-largest host city after İstanbul, accommodating 431,390 Syrians. Moreover, Gaziantep is characterized by the lowest household disposable income within the Southeastern Anatolia Region of Türkiye (Turkish Statistical Institute, 2021). The city, which ranks lowest in academic achievement within the region, as evidenced by the 2019 TIMSS (Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study) results, faces significant educational disparities (Education Reform Initiative, 2021a, 2021b; Ministry of National Education [MoNE], 2020).

In selecting Gaziantep as our research site, we employed maximum variation sampling to select teachers to represent diverse perspectives and experiences in the study. We considered variability in terms of gender and years of teaching experience. A total of 11 teachers volunteered to participate in the study. Their professional experience ranged from 1 year to 36 years. Except for two teachers, all participants had students with immigrant backgrounds enrolled in their classes. Table 1 displays the key characteristics of the sample.

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Table 1.

Characteristics of the Participants.

Teacher #	Gender	Year of teaching experience	Educational degree	Class size	Having an immigrant student
1	Female	10	BA	45	Yes
2	Female	1	MA student	45	Yes
3	Female	2	BA	32	No
4	Female	8	BA	26	Yes
5	Female	16	BA	40	Yes
6	Female	7	BA	28	Yes
7	Male	36	Graduate of Vocational School of Higher Education	23	Yes
8	Female	6	BA	29	No
9	Female	25	BA	34	Yes
10	Male	1	BA	39	Yes
11	Male	26	BAs	45	Yes

The sample size in the study was determined based on qualitative research principles, precisely the notion of information power (Malterud et al., 2016). Given the study’s focus on a context shaped by immigration and socioeconomic disparities, we prioritized depth of understanding over broad generalizability. Moreover, data saturation was fulfilled, as no new codes and themes emerged after repeated analyses of participant responses.

Findings

The findings are presented under two main themes: Barriers to Culturally Responsive Pedagogy and Culturally Responsive Pedagogy Practices.

Discussion

The increasing diversity within 21st-century classrooms underscores the heightened necessity for pedagogical methodologies that exhibit cultural sensitivity and responsiveness (Richards et al., 2007). Addressing this need, this phenomenological study sheds light on how a sample of primary classroom teachers in Türkiye perceive CRP and enact it within their unique educational landscape. As part of CRP, the present study indicates that the teachers prioritize fairness and actively cultivate a sense of belonging, ensuring that all students feel respected and valued, which enhances their motivation, participation, and academic achievement. Additionally, similar to the findings of Tanase (2022), the teachers mention incorporating students’ experiences into lessons, using relatable examples, and connecting content to real-life contexts, thereby affirming students’ backgrounds and enhancing relevance, comprehension, and retention. However, despite acknowledging the benefits of CRP, the findings reveal persistent barriers and critical needs related to its effective implementation.

CRP fundamentally advocates supporting the learning of all students (Gay, 2002) and promoting academic success for everyone (Ladson-Billings, 2014). However, this research indicates that students from linguistically diverse backgrounds are at a heightened risk of underachievement in Türkiye, similar to the findings of previous studies conducted by Akin-Sabuncu et al. (2023) and Mercan Küçükakın and Gökmenoğlu (2023). The results especially highlight that language barriers not only negatively impact students’ understanding of course content but also affect communication and relationships among students, as well as parental involvement in education. Without effective communication, teachers are likely to miss the opportunity to connect with students and their families and to gain insights into their cultures, essential aspects of CRP. It is important to recognize that the emphasis placed by teachers in this study on immigrant students learning Turkish while simultaneously discouraging the use of their native languages at home perpetuates a deficient perspective toward linguistically diverse students. This perspective notably marginalized students from diverse linguistic backgrounds, despite the fact that bilingualism constitutes a valuable asset. Students should be encouraged to preserve and further develop their proficiency in their native languages. Similarly, in a study conducted in the Flemish context (Hagenaars et al., 2025), the authors report that most teachers highlighted the challenges of teaching in culturally diverse classrooms. They specifically identified language as a barrier to effective teacher-student communication, as these students were more outspoken, operated within a different cultural frame of reference, placed greater importance on teacher-student relationships, and exhibited heightened sensitivity. While discussing the concept of cultural competence, Ladson-Billings (1995) posits that CRP allows students to preserve their cultural identities and leverage their backgrounds as resources for learning. For linguistic diversity to be recognized as an educational advantage rather than a barrier, it is crucial to equip teachers with effective strategies and critical consciousness to subvert hegemonic values reproduced through discourses and discriminatory practices, both within educational institutions and in the broader socio-cultural context. Such efforts are essential to counter deficit-based perspectives that marginalize linguistically diverse students. Akin-Sabuncu and Kasapoglu (2023) emphasized the importance of challenging deficit-oriented perspectives among teachers and fostering an awareness of the socio-political context that jeopardizes the academic development of students from diverse backgrounds. Curran (2003) advocates for teachers to understand the natural responses of students in second language acquisition, implement pedagogical strategies that facilitate this process, and foster a supportive classroom environment that values linguistic diversity. Furthermore, Larson et al. (2020) emphasize that effective language interventions initiated at an early age, which recognize and honor children’s home languages and cultures, can significantly bridge the word gap for children from culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds.

It is evident that several essential qualifications are required for teachers to create culturally responsive classrooms (Gay, 2002; Richards et al., 2007; Rychly & Graves, 2012; Villegas & Lucas, 2002). For instance, Jackson (1993) emphasizes that culturally responsive educators build trust, employ a diverse range of instructional methods, and analyze, adapt, and develop culturally sensitive instructional materials. However, the results reveal that teachers face significant challenges in implementing culturally responsive practices effectively due to the unconducive learning conditions, which aligns with findings from other studies (e.g., B. A. Brown et al., 2019; Roybal, 2018). Specifically, the teachers in this study claim that overcrowded classrooms and the standardized curriculum, assessments, and educational materials impede their ability to effectively differentiate and personalize instruction. It can be argued that large class sizes limit teachers’ capacity to connect with each student on a personal level, making it more difficult to understand their cultural perspectives and needs. Additionally, students in such environments may have fewer opportunities to engage in classroom discussions and collaborative learning activities, which can result in missed opportunities for personal growth and diminish the richness of the overall classroom experience for all learners. Furthermore, the content of the standardized curriculum, assessments, and textbooks, which are evaluated as insufficiently sensitive to the diverse cultural backgrounds by the participating teachers, seems to minimize teachers’ efforts to tailor their lessons to reflect the unique cultural backgrounds, experiences, and needs of their students. Because of the strict curriculum guidelines and standardized assessments, teachers may focus on covering standardized content rather than ensuring the cultural relevance of their teaching. The study conducted by Ramsay-Jordan (2020) similarly criticized the current educational standardization practices, arguing that these standards significantly diminish teachers’ opportunities to integrate culturally responsive practices into their classrooms. The standardization not only restricts teachers from engaging with challenging and diverse content that reflects the rich cultural backgrounds of their students but also leads to a homogenized approach to lesson planning. In an era marked by heightened standardization, a crucial step toward transformation may involve fostering dialog regarding the narratives of successful pedagogical practices of CRP (Baker & Digiovanni, 2005).

Similar to this study, a U.S. study by Debnam et al. (2023) explored the specific culturally responsive practices of 13 in-service teachers. In their study, the teachers’ culturally responsive practices were categorized into three main areas: (1) personal traits such as humility, awareness, self-reflection, and empathy; (2) actions and behaviors, including actively listening to students, maintaining an open-minded and flexible approach; and (3) integrating students’ interests into the curriculum. However, many of these practices also align with general teaching strategies, such as getting to know students, building relationships, adapting communication, and incorporating discussions on culture in the classroom. The present study as well provided evidence for teachers’ efforts for implementing CRP. As Hagenaars et al. (2025) argue, the research focused exclusively on exemplary culturally responsive teachers, leaving a gap in understanding the difficulties faced by less experienced or less confident teachers in diverse classrooms. This is particularly significant, as many teachers report feeling unprepared to teach in multicultural settings (Romijn et al., 2021). The current study in this respect is valuable for showing the practices who do not have adequate training on CRP.

According to Kieran and Anderson (2019), teachers must cultivate awareness about culture, develop cultural competence, and foster critical consciousness among themselves and their students. Notably, the results reveal that teachers hold a narrow view of culture and lack sufficient knowledge of CRP. Surprisingly, some participating teachers have not even heard the concept of CRP despite having at least one immigrant child in their classrooms. Additionally, in this sample, cultural differences are primarily explained through students’ ethnicity and language. Consistent with these findings, there exist previous studies that note teachers’ misinterpretations (e.g., Sleeter, 2012) and misunderstandings (e.g., Ebersole et al., 2016) regarding CRP in the literature. These findings support the idea that teachers require effective preparation in teacher education programs and continuous professional development opportunities regarding CRP. These efforts should prioritize enhancing teachers’ understanding that cultural differences encompass a diverse array of differences shaping student identities, including but not limited to gender, ethnicity, race, religion, sexual orientation, language, and social class (Heinz et al., 2021; Mercan Küçükakın, 2024). As the teachers in the present study suggest, in-service training programs are likely to be more effective if they are project-based and specifically designed to address real-life challenges faced in the classroom.

As a final point, it is crucial to note that teachers’ perceived understanding of managing challenges may not necessarily align with the needs of students in intercultural classrooms (Crushner & Mahon, 2009; Fantini, 2009). This misalignment could stem from a gap between the strategies teachers consider effective and those that students find beneficial (Schwarzenthal et al., 2023). As a result, teachers risk overlooking key intercultural challenges, potentially creating a false sense of confidence in their culturally relevant practices (Hagenaars et al., 2025). Furthermore, teachers may conflate general teaching skills with culturally relevant practices, as their perceptions are shaped by the diverse educational environments in which they work. This can lead them to interpret standard teaching competencies through an intercultural lens (Wubbels et al., 2006). An example of this dilemma is reported in a study by van Tartwijk et al. (2009). Focusing on classroom management, the authors examined culturally relevant classroom management practices employed by teachers. The participants in their study notably stated that they did not consider students’ background characteristics, such as ethnicity, as they believed doing so might reinforce prejudice. This suggests that teachers favored a colorblind approach, believing they treated all students equally without explicitly recognizing ethnic differences.

To ensure the long-term sustainability of culturally responsive practices in Türkiye, policy changes beyond professional development must be considered. This includes systemic policy reform, continuous professional development, and improvements in teacher education programs (Debnam et al., 2023). For example, the MoNE could implement policies prioritizing diversity, equity, and inclusion in education. Such policies can include curriculum reforms that incorporate diverse perspectives, provide professional development opportunities for educators to enhance their cultural competence and foster collaboration between schools, communities, and cultural organizations (Gay, 2015). Additionally, it is crucial to address systemic barriers, such as overcrowded classrooms, standardized curricula, assessments, and educational materials, to ensure the effective implementation of CRP policies (B. A. Brown et al., 2019).

Limitations and Implications

While offering valuable insights into the perceptions and challenges teachers face in implementing CRP in Türkiye, this study has limitations that should be considered when interpreting the findings.

First, the sample size of 11 teachers from public schools in Gaziantep restricts the generalizability of the findings to the wider educational context in Türkiye. Additionally, while the study aimed to explore culturally diverse classrooms, the diversity observed was predominantly related to refugee students with language barriers, gender, and socio-economic differences, without representation of other forms of diversity, such as students with disabilities. Moreover, the reliance on self-reported data from semi-structured interviews may introduce biases, such as social desirability or misinterpretation. Finally, while the study highlights the barriers to implementing CRP, it does not account for how they may have evolved over time. Longitudinal studies could provide more robust insights into how teachers’ perceptions and practices related to CRP develop and change in response to ongoing professional development and evolving classroom dynamics.

Future research could address these limitations by employing larger and more diverse samples, and incorporating methods like classroom observations to triangulate and enrich the findings. The implications of this study emphasize the need for schools to cultivate inclusive environments, particularly for minority students who are at greater risk of marginalization. Educators must respect and build upon the diverse cultural backgrounds of students and their families, fostering a classroom atmosphere where every student feels a strong sense of belonging, which in turn can enhance motivation and autonomy. Professional development initiatives should prioritize culturally responsive leadership and the integration of culturally responsive pedagogies. Furthermore, teacher education programs must consider the broader political and social implications of global migration and rising cultural diversity, equipping educators with the tools to challenge hegemonic discourses and the structural mechanisms that perpetuate marginalization in educational settings.

As Baker and Digiovanni (2005) assert, CRP remains a meaningless concept without concrete action, and policy changes are needed to support its effective implementation. We hope that the current study contributes to the transformation of the practices by portraying the narratives of practitioners in the context of Türkiye.