Transformational approaches to leadership have increasingly been advocated for schools. Research evidence suggests that the effect of leadership on student learning outcomes is mediated by school conditions such as goals, structure, people, and school culture. Using the combined approach of multilevel analysis and structural modeling, this study investigated the relationships of leadership with school learning culture. Data were collected from a random sample of 373 teachers. The results suggested relationships between leadership and school learning culture did exist, and they highlight the importance of individual principal-teacher relationships in schools.
Ames, C. (1990). Motivation: What teachers need to know. Teachers College Record, 91, 409-421.
2.
Ames, C., & Ames, R. (Eds.). (1989). Research on motivation in education: Goals and cognitions. New York: Academic Press.
3.
Bamburg, J. (1994). Raising expectations to improve student learning. NCREL Urban Education Program. Urban Education Monograph Series (ED378290). Washington, DC: Office of Educational Research & Improvement.
4.
Barnett, K., & McCormick, J. (2003). Vision, relationships, and teacher motivation: A case study. Journal of Educational Administration, 41(1), 55-73.
5.
Barnett, K., McCormick, J., & Conners, R. (2001). Transformational leadership: Panacea, placebo, or problem?Journal of Educational Administration, 39, 24-46.
6.
Bass, B. (1985). Leadership and performance beyond expectations. New York: Free Press.
7.
Bass, B.,& Avolio, B. (1997). The full range leadership development manual for the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire. Redwood City, CA: Mindgarden Inc.
8.
Bliese, P., Halverson, R., & Schriesheim, C. (2002). Benchmarking multilevel methods in leadership: The articles, the model, and the data set. Leadership Quarterly, 13, 3-14.
9.
Blumberg, A., & Greenfield, W. (1986). The effective principal. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
10.
Bryk, A., & Schneider, B. (2002). Trust in schools: A core resource for improvement. Chicago: Russell Sage.
11.
Burns, J. (1978). Leadership. New York: Harper & Row.
12.
Bycio, P., Hackett, R., & Allen, J. (1995). Further assessments of Bass’s (1985) conceptualization of transactional and transformational leadership. Journal of Applied Psychology, 80, 468-478.
13.
Caldwell, B., & Spinks, J. (1998). Beyond the self-managing school. London: Falmer.
14.
Carless, S. (1998), Assessing the discriminant validity of transformational leader behaviors as measured by the MLQ. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 71, 353-358.
15.
Conger, J. (1989). The charismatic leader: Behind the mystique of exceptional leadership. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
16.
Conger, J. (1999). Charismatic and transformational leadership in organizations: An insider’s perspective on these developing research streams. Leadership Quarterly, 10, 145-179.
17.
Conley, D. (1996). Are you ready to restructure? A guidebook for educators, parents, and community members. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.
18.
Deal, T.,& Peterson, K. (1990). The principal’s role in shaping school culture. Washington, DC: Office of Educational Research & Improvement.
19.
Deal, T., & Peterson, K. (1999). Shaping school culture. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
20.
Den Hartog, D., Van Muijen, J.,& Koopman, P. (1997). Transactional vs. transformational leadership, an analysis of the MLQ in a Dutch situation. Gedrag en Organisatie, 7, 155-166.
21.
du Toit, S.,& du Toit, M. (1999). Multilevel modeling. In D. Jöreskog, K. Sörbom, S. du Toit,& M. du Toit (Eds.), LISREL 8: New statistical features (pp. 13-128). Chicago: Scientific Software International.
22.
Dweck, C., & Leggett, E. (1988). A social-cognitive approach to motivation and personality. Psychological Review, 95, 5-12.
23.
Goldstein, H. (1995). Multilevel statistical models. London: Edward Arnold.
24.
Hall, R.,& Lord, R. (1995). Multilevel information processing explanations of followers’leadership perceptions. Leadership Quarterly, 6, 265-287.
25.
Hallinger, P., & Heck, R. (1998). Exploring the principal’s contribution to school effectiveness: 1980-1995. School Effectiveness and School Improvement, 9, 157-191.
26.
Hogg, M. (2001). A social identity theory of leadership. Personality and Psychology Review, 5, 184-200.
27.
Holladay, S.,& Coombs, W. (1993). Communicating visions: An exploration of the role of delivery in the creation of leader charisma. Management Communication Quarterly, 8, 165-189.
28.
Hollander, E. (1978). Leadership dynamics: A practical guide to effective relationships. New York: Free Press.
29.
Hollander, E. (1993). Legitimacy, power and influence: A perspective on relational features of leadership. In M. Chemers & R. Ayman (Eds.), Leadership theory and research: Perspectives and directions (pp. 29-47). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
30.
Independent Schools Council of Australia. (2003). About independent schools. Retrieved August 12, 2003, from http://www.ncisa.edu.au/
31.
Kohn, A. (1993). Punished by rewards: The trouble with gold stars, incentive plans, as praise and other bribes. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
32.
Kouzes, J.,& Posner, B. (1995). The leadership challenge: How to get extraordinary things done in organizations. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
33.
Lashway, L. (2000). Leadingwith vision. ERIC Digest, No. 107. Eugene, OR: ERIC Clearinghouse.
34.
Lee, M., Buck, R.,& Midgley, C. (1992, April). The organizational context of personal teaching efficacy. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, San Francisco.
35.
Leithwood, K., & Jantzi, D. (1997). Explaining variation in teachers’ perceptions of principals’ leadership: a replication. Journal of Educational Administration, 35, 312-331.
36.
Leithwood, K.,& Jantzi, D. (2000). The effects of transformational leadership on organizational conditions and student engagement with school. Journal of Educational Administration, 38, 112-129.
37.
Leithwood, K., Jantzi, D., & Steinbach, R. (1999). Changing leadership for changing times. Buckingham, UK: Open University Press.
38.
Leithwood, K., Tomlinson, D., & Genge, M. (1996). Transformational school leadership. In K. Leithwood (Ed.), International handbook on educational leadership (pp. 785-840). Norwall, MA: Kluwer.
39.
Lievens, F., Van Geit, P., & Coetsier, P. (1997). Identification of transformational leadership qualities: An examination of potential biases. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 6, 415-430.
40.
Locke, E., & Latham, G. (1990). A theory of goal setting and task performance. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
41.
Lord, R.,& Maher, K. (1990). Alternative information processing models and their implications for theory, research, and practice. Academy of Management Review, 15, 9-13.
42.
Lord, R.,& Maher, K. (1991). Leadership and information processing: Linking perceptions and performance. Boston: Unwin Hyman.
43.
Maehr, M., & Anderman, E. (1993). Reinventing schools for early adolescents: Emphasising task goals. Elementary School Journal, 93(5), 593-609.
44.
Maehr, M., & Fyans, L. (1989). School culture, motivation, and achievement. In C. Ames & M. Maehr (Eds.), Advances in motivation and achievement, Vol. 6 (pp. 215-247). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.
45.
Maehr, M., & Midgley, C. (1991, April). A theory based approach to restructuring middle level schools. Paper presented at the Annual General Meeting of the Educational Research Association, Chicago.
46.
Maehr, M., & Midgley, C. (1996). Transforming school cultures. Boulder, CO: Westview.
47.
Maehr, M., Midgley, C., Hicks, L., Roeser, R., Urdan, T., Anderman, E., et al. (1996). Patterns of Adaptive Learning Survey. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan.
48.
Midgley, C. (1993). Motivation and middle level schools. In P. Pintrich & M. Maehr (Eds.), Advances in motivation and achievement in the adolescent years, Vol. 8 (pp. 219-276). Greenwich, CT: JAI.
49.
Midgley, C., Anderman, E., & Hicks, L. (1995). Differences between elementary and middle school teachers, and students. Journal of Early Adolescence, 15, 389-411.
50.
Nanus, B. (1992). Visionary leadership. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
51.
Nicholls, J. (1984). Conceptions of ability and achievement in motivation. In R. Ames & C. Ames (Eds.), Research on motivation in education, Vol. 1 (pp. 39-73). New York: Academic Press.
52.
Pawar, B., & Eastman, K. (1997). The nature and implications of contextual influences on transformational leadership. Academy of Management Review, 22, 80-109.
53.
Pedhazur, E., Pedhazer, L.,& Schmelkin, L. (1991). Measurement, design and analysis: An integrated approach. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
54.
Ragins, B.,& Sundstrom, E. (1989). Gender and power in organizations: Alongitudinal perspective. Psychological Bulletin, 63, 273-287.
55.
Raudenbush, S. (1995). Maximum likelihood estimation for unbalanced multilevel covariance structure models via the EMalgorithm. British Journal of Mathematical and Statistical Psychology, 48, 359-370.
56.
Robbins, S. (1989). Organizational behavior: Concepts, controversies, and applications. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
57.
Rowe, K. (1998). Accounting for the hierarchical structure of data in psychosocial research: Anannotated example using multilevel structural equation modeling. In M. Mok & S. Burke(Eds.), Collected papers on applications in multilevel modeling. Sydney, Australia: Macquarie University.
58.
Rowe, K. (2000a). Multilevel analysis with MLn/MlwiN and Lisrel 8.30: An integrated course. Melbourne, Australia: University of Melbourne.
59.
Rowe, K. (2000b). Simultaneous estimation of interdependent effects among multilevel composite variables in psychosocial research: An annotated example of the application of multilevel structural equation modeling. In N. Duan& S. Reise (Eds.), Multilevel modeling: Methodological advances, issues, and applications (pp. 1-37). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
60.
Rowe, K.,& Hill, P. (1997, January). Simultaneous estimation of multilevel structural equations to model students’ progress. Paper presented at the 10th International Congress for School Effectiveness and Improvement, Memphis, TN.
61.
Rowe, K., & Rowe, K. (1998, June). Modeling the overlap between students’ attentive-inattentive behaviors in the classroom and their literacy progress. Paper presented at the 1st International Conference on Child & Adolescent Mental Health, The Chinese University of Hong Kong.
62.
Rowe, K., & Rowe, K. (1999). Investigating the relationship between students’ attentive-inattentive behaviors in the classroom and their literacy progress. International Journal of Educational Research, 31(1/2), 1-138.
63.
Ryan, R., & Deci, E. (2000). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations: Classic definitions and new directions. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25, 54-67.
64.
Sashkin, M., & Walberg, H. (1993). Educational leadership and school culture. Berkeley, CA: McCutchan.
65.
Schein, E. (1992). Organizational culture and leadership. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
66.
Schriesheim, C., Mowday, R.,& Stogdill, R. (1979). Crucial dimensions of leader-groupinteractions. In J. Hunt& L. Larson (Eds.), Crosscurrents in leadership (pp. 106-125). Carbondale, IL: University Press.
67.
Scott, B. (1990). School centered education: Building a more responsive state school system. Milsons Point, Australia: NSW Education Portfolio.
68.
Shamir, B. (1995). Social distance and charisma: Theoretical notes and an exploratory study. Leadership Quarterly, 6, 19-47.
69.
Silins, H. (1994). The relationship between transformational leadership and school improvement outcomes. School Effectiveness and School Improvement, 5, 272-298.
70.
Stolp, S.,& Smith, S. (1995). Transforming school culture. Eugene, OR: ERIC Clearinghouse on Educational Management.
71.
Tichy, N., & Devanna, M. (1986). The transformational leader. New York: John Wiley.
72.
Vandenberghe, R., & Staessens, K. (1991, April). Vision as a core component in school culture. Paper presented at annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Chicago.
73.
Yammarino, F., & Bass, B. (1990). Transformational leadership at multiple levels of analysis. Human Relations, 43, 975-995.
74.
Yammarino, F., Spangler, W., & Dubinsky, A. (1998). Transformational and contingent reward leadership: Individual, dyad, and group level analysis. Leadership Quarterly, 9, 19-27.
75.
Yukl, G. (1998). Leadership in organizations. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
