The Pauline Sense of the Expression “Now the Lord is the Spirit” (2 Cor. 3:17a)

1.1 The implicit reference to Exodus 34:34

2 Cor. 3:16, to which our contested v. 17a makes reference, has an obvious inter-textual relationship (not a direct quotation) with Exod. 34:34, where the Lord refers to God.

Paul amends the OT text according to his own argumentative purpose. As Pitta affirms, “It is not the context of the original sources which gives the primary meaning of the passages chosen by Paul, but the context of his letters, according to the hermeneutical process of de-contextualization and of re-contextualization.” ¹

Paul can base himself on an OT text where the Lord refers to God the Father, and refer it, in its new context, to the one who is his Lord, Jesus Christ. In fact, in 1 Cor. 2:16, quoting Isa. 40:13, Paul asks: “Who has known the mind of the Lord (νοῦν κυρίου) to instruct him?” Surely this Isaian text referred to the mind of God the Father, but Paul answers by saying: “We have the mind of Christ (νοῦν χριστοῦ)”. Knowledge of the mind of the Lord, in other words, coincides with the possession of the mind of Christ. We find another example of this same phenomenon in Rom. 10:13, in which Paul uses the passage from Joel 3:5: “Everyone who calls upon the name of the Lord will be saved”. Immediately before, Paul had affirmed that the invocation is to “confess with your mouth that Jesus is Lord” (Rom. 10:9). ²

1.2 “The Spirit of the Lord” and “the glory of the Lord”

The term “Lord” does not occur exclusively in 2 Cor. 3:16 before the conflictive recurrence of v. 17a, but is found again in v. 17b, “the Spirit of the Lord,” and one more time in v. 18, “the glory of the Lord.” The first recurrence shows that the interpretation that identifies “Lord” with Jesus Christ is possible and the second suggests that it is very likely.

With different methodologies, both Dunn and Penna have shown that although Paul sometimes uses “Spirit” to refer to “God,” ³ what is proper to the Pauline corpus is, above all, the Spirit as the “Spirit of Christ.” ⁴ Vanni affirms, “The Christological ‘centrality’ of Pauline pneumatology is its most fascinating novelty.” ⁵ The clearest example is found in Rom. 8:9, where the “Spirit of Christ” allows Christ himself to dwell in the Christian. Another paradigmatic text is Gal. 4:6: the expression “Spirit of the Son” can only refer to Jesus Christ (Gal. 4:4). Finally, we can refer to the expression “Spirit of Jesus Christ” (Philip. 1:19). Pauline pneumatology, thus, is “colored” christologically. Hence, it must not surprise us that the expression “the Spirit of the Lord” could refer to the Spirit of Christ.

V. 18 says: “All of us, with unveiled face beholding as in a mirror the glory of the Lord, are being transformed into the same image”. The density of this verse is great, but fortunately, 2 Cor. 4:4, where the terms “glory” and “image” reappear, helps us understand the terminology that appears in 3:18. ⁶ “Beholding as in a mirror the glory of the Lord” (3:18a) corresponds to “the illumination of the glory of Christ” (4:4). The “glory of the Lord” (3:18a) and the “glory of Christ” (4:4) are therefore synonymous expressions. In fact, 4:6 states that “the glory of God is in the face of Christ”.

In addition, the image by which Christians are transformed (3:18) is Christ, who is the “image of God” (4:4). ⁷ Thus, the Apostle puts a face to the “glory” which he has been talking about since 3:7, whose ultimate manifestation is found in the image of God, the face of Jesus Christ. ⁸ Perhaps Paul is establishing a parallelism between the face of Jesus Christ and the face of Moses here. While there was a moment when Moses’ face radiated perishable glory, the face of Jesus Christ radiates the permanent glory of God in a surprising way. Just as Moses’ face serves to evoke the story of Moses (Exod. 34:29–35), so too the face of Jesus Christ serves to evoke the story of Jesus Christ. Therefore, it presents Christ as the Lord, as the full manifestation of the glory of God, the true image of God. The expression “glory of the Lord” of 2 Cor. 3:18 refers to Christ.

1.3 The whole argument from 2 Cor. 2:14–4:6

As already stated, 2 Cor. 2:14–4:6 is focused on the new covenant, which is compared with the old covenant. Continuity and progression exist, especialy between tablets, ministries and glories.

Old covenant (v. 14)    New covenant (v. 6)

On stone tablets (v. 3)    On tablets of human hearts (v. 3)

With ink or written letters (v. 3, 6)    With the Spirit (v. 6)

Kills (v. 6)     Gives life (v. 6)

Ministry of death (v. 7)    Ministry of the Spirit (v. 8)

Ministry of condemnation (v. 9)    Ministry of justification (v. 9)

Transitory glory (v. 7)    Glory which transcends and lasts (vv. 10, 11)

The difference between the old and the new covenant lies in the veil which covered the old (v. 14). The Apostle develops a reflection of an allegorical-midrashic nature on the Exod. 34:33–35 text, referring this noun to three different situations: (1) the veil from the face of Moses (vv. 12–13): Moses, covering his face with a veil so that his perishable glory may not be seen, is opposed to the first person plural, the “we” of the Christian ministers, characterized by fearlessness and freedom (vv. 12, 17); (2) the veil of those who do not welcome the Lord (vv. 14–15): this is a veil placed upon the hearts of the Israelites which blinds them; (3) the veil, already removed, of those who have accepted the Lord (vv. 16–18): In this case, having been converted to the Lord, the veil is now removed, which is why they can see and understand the old covenant. They may contemplate the glory of God, and precisely because of this, at the same time, they may be contemplated so as to reflect without decrease, but with a gradual increase, the image of the Lord (v. 18). These three different uses of the noun “veil” intermingle (1) the past time of Moses, (2) that of the unbelieving Jews until the time of Paul, and (3) that of those who welcome the Lord in the time of Paul and the times to come.

Now, who is this Lord whom it is necessary to welcome so that the veil may disappear and hence pass from the “old covenant” to the “new covenant”? It does not appear that the Lord can refer to God (YHWH), because the Jews of Paul’s time would not turn back to God, whom they already welcomed. The context clearly shows that Paul is thinking of the Jews who do not need to turn to God, but to Jesus Christ, as Lord. Paul himself clearly states: “The veil…is taken away only through Christ” (v. 14c), which is why this new covenant is sealed in Christ. Paul, while establishing the Christological identity of the Lord, indicates the importance of the conversion of Israel to Christ as Lord. ⁹

Moreover, the end of the passage, where Paul speaks about the Christian ministers again, he states that they are ministers of the new covenant because they have accepted Christ as Lord: “We do not preach ourselves, but Jesus Christ as Lord” (2 Cor. 4:5).

1.4 The Lord in relationship with God, Jesus Christ and the Spirit in the Pauline corpus

In the Pauline corpus the title “Lord” is mainly applied to Christ, rarely to God the Father, ¹⁰ and never to the Spirit. As Matera has well shown, after the designation of Jesus as “Christ”, the second most common way in which the Pauline letters designate Jesus is “the Lord.” ¹¹

Paul always links the Lord with Christ when the nouns “God” (θεός), “Spirit” (πνεῦμα), and “the Lord” (κύριος) appear together in the rest of the corpus. In this same letter, precisely in the conclusion (2 Cor. 13:13), Paul uses these terms: “The grace of the Lord Jesus Christ, the love of God and the fellowship of the Holy Spirit be with you all.” This solemn conclusion directly links the Lord with Jesus by means of the apposition between Lord and Jesus Christ, not with God or with the Spirit. ¹²

A similar statement is found in 1 Corinthians, a letter with which the recipients of 2 Corinthians were most likely familiar. There we read: “there is only one God, the Father from whom all things come and for whom we exist, and one Lord, Jesus Christ” (1 Cor. 8:6). In this case, the noun “Spirit” does not appear, but the Lord does appear, once again in apposition with Jesus Christ and distinct from the name God, which this time appears in apposition with “the Father”. It is noteworthy that, on this occasion, by means of the numeral εἷς, “only one”, Paul emphasizes that there is one Lord, Jesus Christ. ¹³ This is a short creed of the ancient Church in which Paul, recalling the beginning of the founding creed of Israel (Deut. 6:4), identifies God as “the Father” and Jesus Christ as “the Lord”, thus applying to Jesus Christ a name that belonged only to God. ¹⁴ Confessing Jesus Christ as Lord is a sort of summary of the Christian faith.

Now, if 1 Cor. 8:6 describes a primitive creed, that is, in whom one believes, namely Jesus Christ as Lord, Philip. 2:6–11 describes the when, that is, when Christ obtained the title of “Lord.” This is another creed, since it states that every tongue should “confess” that Jesus Christ is the Lord on account of the resurrection, in which God exalts him and gives him the name “Lord” (Philip. 2:9). ¹⁵ Both the universal lordship of Jesus (Philip. 2:10), as well as the distinction that the hymn establishes between the Lord Jesus, on the one hand, and God on the other (Philip. 2:11), are striking. In fact, the proclamation of Jesus Christ as Lord is for the glory of God the Father. ¹⁶

2.1 The identification between the Lord and the Spirit

We also find this relationship between κύριος, Jesus Christ and πνεῦμα through the verb “to be” in 1 Cor. 6:17: “anyone who attaches himself to the Lord is one spirit with him”. The title “Lord” clearly refers to Jesus Christ in this context, since 1 Cor. 6:14 says that “God raised the Lord” with reference to the resurrection of Jesus Christ. Paul is saying that one who is joined to a prostitute becomes one body with her; however, one who is joined to the Lord Jesus Christ becomes one spirit with him. Paul does not say body, which could recall the union with the woman, but spirit, which is what the Lord can share with the Christian. The communion of the Christian with Christ is in the Spirit, and it is thus fitting that we become one Spirit with him. May’s statement cannot be any clearer:

The notion of what it means for the body to be a “member of Christ” is to be understood not in terms of a mystical participation in Christ’s exalted body, but in terms of the spirit-union of the believer with the Lord, a union that, as we shall see, is effected through the Spirit’s presence in the body. Thus membership of Christ is not an innate property of the believer’s body, but rather indicates that Christ possesses his or her body through the Spirit. ¹⁷

The text of 1 Cor. 12:3 continues in the same vein: “nobody is able to say, ‘Jesus is Lord’ except in the Holy Spirit.” The relationship between the Spirit and Jesus is such that no one who is moved by the Spirit can say anything against Jesus, and no one can say that the Lord is Jesus except in the Spirit. That is, once Jesus is constituted Lord after his resurrection, everything that refers to him is offered to us by the Spirit and in the Spirit.

Particularly striking is the somewhat later text of 2 Thess. 2:8. It also assigns the title “Lord” to Jesus Christ and relates πνεῦμα directly to him. The passage is framed in a section dedicated to the “coming of our Lord Jesus Christ” (2:1), and then it clearly identifies Jesus Christ with “our Lord”. According to the author of the letter, the said coming will be preceded by the apostasy of the wicked man, the Son of Perdition, the Adversary (2:3–4), “whom the Lord (Jesus) shall destroy with the Spirit of his mouth” (2:8), that is, by his own Spirit, the breath coming out of his mouth. On the one hand, there exists such a relationship between our Lord Jesus Christ and the Spirit that the Spirit comes out of his mouth as his breath; the Spirit comes from Jesus Christ. On the other hand, the Lord Jesus Christ, after his resurrection, acts through his Spirit not only in his ordinary actions, but also in those that are determinant, as the ultimate victory over evil. The Spirit acts in the name of the exalted Christ, granting the benefits of Christ’s redemption.

In addition, Paul employs the verb “to be” in a broad sense with relative frequency, stating simply “means or is manifested”. Let us take a look at two examples. 1 Cor. 10:4 relates Christ with the verb “to be”. Paul speaks of the rock which is in the way of the desert (Exod. 17:5–6), and says: “They drank of that spiritual rock that followed them; and the rock was Christ.” Obviously, this does not mean that rock was literally Christ, but that the rock “signified, manifested, or represented” Christ. The second example is found in Gal. 4:24–26, where Paul also speaks of the two covenants. In this context, the Apostle says that “the first, the one of Mount Sinai, mother of the slaves, is Hagar” (4:24), and the second, “is the Jerusalem above; she is free and our mother” (4:26). Obviously, these verbs cannot be interpreted as an ontological identity, but rather Hagar signified or represented the first covenant, whereas the Jerusalem above signifies or represents the new covenant.

These texts, which are directly related to ours, show us that the identification of 2 Cor. 3:17a is functional and not substantial. It is a dynamic equivalence. It is not that they are substantially identical, but rather that one who experiences the Spirit of Christ experiences Christ himself. Christ dwells in the Christian by means of his Spirit. The Spirit enables intimate and authentic communion with Christ. Schweizer says: “πνεῦμα is defined as the mode of existence of the κύριος.” ¹⁸

2.2 The progressive transformation in Christ by the Spirit

2 Cor. 3:18 indicates that “all of us” are called to reflect, as in a mirror and with our faces unveiled, the glory of the Lord. Just as Moses reflected it with a veiled face, the ministers of the new covenant do so unveiled, in such a way that they can both see and be seen. This allows us better to understand the participle κατοπτριζόμενοι, a hapax in the New Testament which some interpret as “contemplate”, others as “reflect.” ¹⁹ Christ is the one who has raised the veil once and for all, which is why it is possible to continuously and simultaneously contemplate and reflect Christ.

It can be postulated that this is an ambivalence that expresses both meanings. Like Moses (Exod. 33:18; Num. 12:8), the Christian reflects the glory of the Lord in the measure in which s/he contemplates it. That is, contemplation is the transforming principle of the Christian, and the consequence of this transformation is the reflection of the contemplated image; we need to contemplate in order to reflect.

Christ is the reflection of God’s image seen in a mirror. And one who contemplates Christ is transformed and also reflects the image of God. Thus, believers are in a continuous process of transformation into the divine image, which is Christ. ²⁰ The main verb of v. 18 is μεταμορφόω, and it expresses an inner transformation which includes a “visible” element, since Moses, the type of the Christian, also possessed a visible glory. ²¹ Assimilation to Christ, as God’s image, produces a visibly Christ-like character, so that the divine image is made “visible” in the Christian way of life.

This transformation occurs continuously and progressively, “from glory to glory”. This expression is a description of the progress of a state of glory to a higher state of glory. This expression is in marked contrast with the reflection of the face of Moses, which decreased (3:7, 13). By contrast, the glory of the Lord that is reflected in the lives of believers gradually increases. The Christian transformation is not instantaneous, but gradual: by participating in the glory of Christ, the Christian is transformed into that same glory, up until the final glorification. ²²

This continuous and progressive transformation is always a “Christification”, since the Christian is transformed into “the same image”, which is Jesus Christ. ²³ Now, this transformation in Christ is carried out through another agent performing the action, as shown both by the passive voice of the verb (μεταμορφούμεθα), and by the expression that follows the text indicating the agent complement: καθάπερ ἀπὸ κυρίου πνεύματος, which should be translated as “according to (how) the Lord who is the Spirit (works in us)”. The conjunction καθάπερ, “as”, implies an ellipsis: “believers are transformed from glory to glory (as when one is transformed) by the Lord, who works through the Spirit”.

The preposition ἀπό expresses the underlying cause of a particular action. It seems as if there is an agent other than the Christian him/herself who produces the transformation. ²⁴ This agent complement is expressed in the genitive κυρίου πνεύματος, governed by the abovementioned preposition. Harris argues that if a preposition is followed by two nouns, both in the genitive, the preposition governs and qualifies the first. ²⁵ Hence the whole prepositional phrase, interpreting the second genitive as epexegetical, which tries to further explain the first, can be translated as “by the Lord, who is Spirit.” ²⁶

That is, ἀπό designates the origin of the transformation. Here we are dealing with a double origin: “…thanks to the Lord, who manifests himself as Spirit”; thanks to Jesus Christ, who has lifted the veil and now acts by the Spirit. That progressive transformation is possible, since there is no power more transformative and effective than the Spirit of Christ, which can act from within the human person, living in his/her own spirit, and configuring him/her to Christ.

There are two agents of change, but they are directly related to each other. The Spirit acts more from the inside, while Christ acts more from the outside, as he offers the forma Christi that we are called to imitate. Without his Spirit, Christ cannot transform internally. And the Spirit, without Christ, would not have a model to which to configure, so that the inner transformation would not be externally expressed.

2.3 How does the Spirit give life?

In our same pericope, the Apostle uses another metaphor to express this transformation in Christ through the Spirit. According to Paul, the Spirit is the Spirit that gives life: “The letter kills, but the Spirit gives life” (v. 6b). And the “ministry of death” (v. 7) opposes the “ministry of the Spirit” (v. 8). What is proper to the Spirit is to vivify, that is, to give life. But what life is offered by the Spirit? Another Pauline text, Rom. 8:2, where we find a similar expression, says that the Spirit “gives the life in Christ Jesus.” The vital principle of Christ, the Spirit of the Lord, can engender life “in Christ Jesus”. Moreover, Rom. 8:2 also states that this Spirit, which offers life in Christ, liberates. Just as 2 Cor. 3:17b stated that “where the Spirit of the Lord is, there is freedom”, likewise Rom. 8:2 says that the Spirit of Christ liberates, offering life in Christ Jesus. That is, the Spirit of Christ frees us because it gives us the life of Christ, who is the one who frees us, lifting the veil that disappears only in Christ (2 Cor. 3:14).

We also find the “Spirit who gives life” in 1 Cor. 15:45c: “The last Adam, a life-giving Spirit” (πνεῦμα ζῳοποιοῦν). In this chapter, focused on the resurrection of Jesus Christ, Paul places the first Adam in parallel with the last Adam, Jesus Christ. Just as the first was made a “living soul” (ψυχὴν ζῶσαν), the latter has become a “life-giving Spirit”. This text puts the creation of the first human, who then becomes a “living soul” (Gen. 2:7), in parallel with the “re-creation” implied by the resurrection of the second Adam, who becomes a “life-giving Spirit”. The resurrection is not only the moment in which Jesus Christ acquires the title of Lord, but is also the time from which the exalted Jesus Christ both lives from the Spirit and dwells in the Christian as Spirit. After his resurrection, being fully possessed by the Spirit, Jesus Christ can give himself, offering his Spirit. The proper characteristic of Jesus Christ is that, once raised, he can be experienced in the Spirit that he bestows. The fully Christian life comes about when the Spirit of Christ radically takes hold of all of one’s existence in the same way in which it possessed Christ. Then, and only then, does Christ dwell in the Christian through his Spirit, offering his full and eternal life. ²⁷

2.4 The Letter of Recommendation

In the immediate context of our verse, Christ is directly linked with the Spirit, further explaining the functional identity between the two. The “letter of recommendation”, that Paul presents in his own defense (2 Cor. 3:1–3), is part of the whole passage. Some from the Church in Corinth had questioned the authority of the Apostle Paul. His response, arguing by means of the letter of recommendation, is not simply a personal apology; rather, Paul emphasizes all the greatness of the apostolic ministry and the Christian vocation.

It is striking that the letter of recommendation is not written with ink but with the Spirit (3:3b). Despite being written with the Spirit, the author of the letter is Christ himself (3:3a). That is, Christ writes the letter by means of the Spirit, who is the instrument by which Christ himself can write on the hearts of Christians. The functional identity between Christ and the Spirit appears once again. The Spirit can dwell in the heart of the believer in order to speak of Christ and write the letter of Christ, the most effective letter of recommendation ever written.

We find a similar relationship between Christ and the Spirit in another Pauline text, Rom. 8:1–11, where this dynamic identity between Christ and the Spirit reappears. Paul not only says that the Christian is both “in Christ” (vv. 1, 2) and “in the Spirit” (v. 9a) interchangeably, but also that Christ “is in the Christian” (v. 10a) as the Spirit “is in the Christian” (vv. 9b.11). Paul makes no distinction between these expressions. ²⁸