Inhabiting the “Resurrectiform” God: Death and Life as Theological Headline in Paul

1. Survey of Death–Life Lexicon

There are 37 occurrences of ζωή (‘life’) in the canonical Pauline material; 10 are in the composite phrase ‘eternal life’ which broadly refers to eschatological salvation. An interesting trend emerges with the 27 occurrences of ζωή outside the term ‘eternal life’. Nineteen of the 27 occurrences of the noun ζωή not in the composite phrase ζωὴν αἰώνιον (eternal life) are in clauses directly connected with death language leaving only 8 of the 27 which are not directly contrasted with terms like νέκρωσις, ἀποθνῄσκω, θάνατος and their cognates.

Of these 8, four are from the undisputed Pauline canon: (i). Rom. 5:18, where, Paul contrasts ‘life’ with ‘condemnation’ (κατάκριμα); (ii). 1 Cor. 15:19, where ‘life’ is hopeless if there is no resurrection; (iii). Phil. 2:16; 4:3; uses the phrases “Word of life” (2:16) and “Book of life” (4:3), unparalleled in Paul.

The picture in Romans is particularly noteworthy; four of the references to ‘eternal life’ are in Romans and even two of these are directly contrasted with death (5:21; 6:23). In sum, excepting the composite phrase ‘eternal life’ and the two anomalous Paulinisms in Philippians, there are only two uses of the word ‘life’ that are not in clauses being directly contrasted with ‘death’ in the undisputed Pauline canon. These are (1) Rom. 5:18, which itself continues a line of thought from 5:17 which does contain a death motif—θάνατος, referring to death reigning because of Adam’s transgression. Furthermore, in Rom. 5:18 itself, ‘life’ occurs in the phrase δικαίωσιν ζωῆς (rectification of life), contrasting ‘condemnation’ (κατάκριμα), which implies eschatological death; and (2) 1 Cor. 15:19, where ‘life’ conveys nothing more than present physical existence. With regard to the verb ‘live’, a comparable pattern is evident.

There are some 59 instances of the verb ‘live’ with its cognates in Paul. 34 are directly linked to death motifs; of the 25 which are not, 21 are in the undisputed corpus. There are 5 in Romans, 4 of which are in OT citations—1:17; 9:26; 10:5; 14:11; the remaining one (12:1) contains the participle θυσίαν ζῶσαν (‘living sacrifice’). Even here, the ‘living’ sacrifice contrasts the sacrificial lifestyle of believers with the Jewish sacrificial cultus, which uses dead animals, so a life–death contrast is implied. Seven instances are participial forms merely describing something being physically alive (1 Cor. 15:45; 2 Cor. 1:8; 3:3; 6:16; 1 Thess. 1:9; 4:15, 17). Two use the euphemism ‘fallen asleep’ (κοιμάω) which implies death (1 Cor. 7:39; 1 Thess. 4:15). In Gal. 3:11–12, the verbs occur in OT quotations.

This leaves 1 Cor. 9:14; 2 Cor. 13:4; Gal. 2:14; 5:25; Phil. 1:22; 1 Thess. 3:8. The reference in 1 Cor. 9:14 suggests ‘make a living’; 2 Cor. 13:4 uses the verb ‘to live’ twice—the first occurrence points to Jesus’ living in the power of God after his crucifixion and uses σταυρόω. The second (sarcastically) contrasts Paul’s corresponding weakness with the ‘life’ in divine power when dealing with the Corinthians. Gal. 2:14 denotes ‘living like a Gentile’; 5:25 is connected to a σταυρόω clause in 5:24; Phil. 1:22; and 1 Thess. 3:8 are also generic references to existence. Again, summing up, excepting occurrences of ‘to live’ in (a) an OT citation, where Paul is quoting and not composing, and (b) a clause where the verb depicts only a generic expression of existence, in the undisputed corpus, Paul always addresses the concept of ‘living’ in conjunction with a ‘death’ motif.

Arguably, any reference to ‘life’ necessarily evokes the opposite in unsaid fashion, like any mention of heat implies coldness; or light, darkness, and so on. So Paul’s statement that “to live is Christ” might silently imply that ‘to die’ has some other value (‘not Christ’?). ¹³ However, the addition of ‘to die is gain’ demonstrates a far more deliberative apposition of life and death. The evidence suggests this is broadly true of the lexical landscape of the undisputed Pauline corpus. The twinned concepts of life and death is critical to Paul’s depiction of God’s work to rectify the world, Paul’s evaluation of his own role within that work and how he remedies aberrant theology and behaviour in the Jesus assemblies. What follows is a demonstration of the paradigm above by recourse to 2 Corinthians.

2. Life and Death Imagery in 2 Corinthians

In 2 Cor. 1:3–9, Paul outlines a ministry plagued with affliction, one he negotiated because the comfort he received from God enabled him to comfort his co-missionaries and vice versa. ‘Comfort’ occurs as a verb or noun ten times in vv. 3–7. The first of these describes God as θεὸς πάσης παρακλήσεως. The summative statement of Paul’s affliction is in 1:8b:

καθ’ ὑπερβολὴν ὑπὲρ δύναμιν ἐβαρήθημεν ὥστε ἐξαπορηθῆναι ἡμᾶς καὶ τοῦ ζῆν (to an excessive degree we were weighed down beyond our power so as to despair even of life). ¹⁴

In the hands of the God of all comfort, these afflictions can be an encouragement, as in 1:9:

ἀλλὰ αὐτοὶ ἐν ἑαυτοῖς τὸ ἀπόκριμα τοῦ θανάτου ἐσχήκαμεν, ἵνα μὴ πεποιθότες ὦμεν ἐφ’ ἑαυτοῖς ἀλλ’ ἐπὶ τῷ θεῷ τῷ ἐγείροντι τοὺς νεκρούς (but we had the judgment of death in our very selves in order that we might not be putting confidence in ourselves, but on the God raising the dead).

For Paul, the God who raises the dead, could ‘raise’ him from the depths of suffering, for God is the one ὃς ἐκ τηλικούτου θανάτου ἐρρύσατο ἡμᾶς καὶ ῥύσεται, εἰς ὃν ἠλπίκαμεν [ὅτι] καὶ ἔτι ῥύσεται (who from so great a death delivered us and will deliver us, in whom we have hoped that he will still deliver). Here, Paul introduces his resurrectiform ministry in 2 Corinthians; Jesus’ experience of suffering, judgment, death, and liberation/vindication through resurrection, was a stencil for Paul to articulate rescue from suffering and ‘death-like’ despair (cf. Gal. 6:17). The notion of trusting the God who makes the dead live as a portrait of divine power is pivotal to Paul’s wider theologizing. ¹⁵

Having celebrated the success of the ‘tearful letter’ and called for mercy upon the chief troublemaker (2:3–11), Paul compares his ministry to an aroma (ὀσμή) in 2:14–17, thanking God for revealing the odour of the knowledge of Christ through his ministry (2:14). In 2:15, when Paul and his team are among the ‘saved’ and the ‘perishing’, they smell like Christ to God. To the ‘lost’ they smell like death (ὀσμὴ ἐκ θανάτου εἰς θάνατον), and to the ‘saved’, like life (ὀσμὴ ἐκ ζωῆς εἰς ζωήν). ¹⁶ Though the interpretation of these verses is not unproblematic, the question at the end of v. 16 makes the rudimentary point plain—καὶ πρὸς ταῦτα τίς ἱκανός; (and who is qualified for these things)? That is, who is ‘qualified’ or ‘worthy’ (ἱκανός) to proclaim a message that spells life to some and death to others? The implication is that moving from ‘lost to saved’ is equivalent to moving from death to life—another picture of resurrection. The dissemination of Paul’s message spreads (the aroma of) the knowledge of Christ, knowledge which presumably brings those dead in perdition to the life of salvation. The question in 2:16 is answered in the next section.

2 Corinthians, like Galatians, has Paul fending off censure regarding his apostolic credentials. From 3:1, it seems Paul must validate his ministry with commendation letters, to and from the Corinthians. ¹⁷ Yet, the church is all the recommendation he needs (v. 2). The rest of his apology, with its allusions to key biblical texts, is striking.

The Corinthians are “a letter of Christ served by us, written not in ink but in (the) Spirit of (the) living God, not in stony tablets but in fleshly tablets of hearts” (2 Cor. 3:3). ¹⁸ The Corinthian church is both a recommendation letter inscribed on Paul’s heart, constantly ratifying his ministerial competence, and a letter all can read. However, rather than compare the church (i.e., Paul’s recommendation) to his opponents’ recommendation letters, Paul compares it to the Decalogue; ‘stony tablets’ (πλαξὶν λιθίναις) clearly alludes to Exod. 31:18, recounting the giving of the Ten Commandments:

Καὶ ἔδωκεν Μωυσεῖ, ἡνίκα κατέπαυσεν λαλῶν αὐτῷ ἐν τῷ ὄρει τῷ Σινα, τὰς δύο πλάκας τοῦ μαρτυρίου, πλάκας λιθίνας γεγραμμένας τῷ δακτύλῳ τοῦ θεοῦ (Exod. 31:18, LXX).

The references to πλαξὶν καρδίαις and πνεύματι θεοῦ ζῶντος call to mind Jer. 31:33 and Ezek. 36:26–27; 37:1–14, a connection made explicit in 2 Cor. 3:6, where Paul and company are ministers of a καινῆ διαθήκη, recalling Jer. 31:31. For Paul, the New Covenant and end of exile prophecies were finding fulfilment in the work of God in Christ; the picture of Judah’s restoration from exile in Babylon in Ezek. 37:1–14 is itself one of Spirit-instigated resurrection. ¹⁹

However, as noted, Paul’s competence is already under scrutiny. The contrast between ‘we’ and ‘many’ in 2:17 indicates that his question in 2:16 has two groups in view: his own, and his opponents in Corinth. ²⁰ Turning to 3:3, the apostle articulates the ‘life’ component of this message. It is the life-giving power of the Spirit, not writing the Law on stony tablets, but ‘internally’ on the fleshly tablets of human hearts, which evidences salvation. This is Paul’s gospel, which smells of ‘life’. Death, by implication, is adherence to the written code.

As Stegman points out, there are two things being contrasted here—two ministries and two covenants. ²¹ To insist on submission to the external Torah was a ‘ministry of death’ (3:7), corresponding to the Old Covenant. Scholars variously explain what is intended by “the letter kills but the Spirit makes alive” (3:6). ²² In light of the reference in v. 3 to the giving of the Law, τὸ γράμμα must be related to the Law, though ‘Law’ is curiously absent in 2 Corinthians. However, the contrast being between the letter and the Spirit as opposed to the Law and the Spirit is reason to pause. For, if Paul expects the connection with letter and Law to be implied from resonances of the Old (Sinai) Covenant in 3:1–6, it follows that he would expect a connection between Spirit and Law to be implied by the resonances of the New (end of the exile) Covenant (Jer. 31:33). I argue, therefore, that ‘letter’ reflects the Law as externality to be obeyed and ‘Spirit’ as the internalization of God’s Law(s) in the heart. ²³ Paul’s was a ministry of Spirit (3:6); not one seeking to fasten people to an external Law but one making God’s Law an inner reality. This is consistent with Rom. 2:29, where Jewish identity is cast in terms of internalization, which is ἐν πνεύματι οὐ γράμματι. In 2 Cor. 3:7, a ministry tying people to the Law, is διακονία τοῦ θανάτου, which presumably his opponents were endorsing. So Paul’s resurrectiform ministry contrasts his opponents’ message that brings death.

In 3:7–18, Paul expands on the assertion of 3:6b, by comparing his qualification to speak on behalf of God with Moses’ mandate, for both speak as intermediaries with their own shortcomings. The conclusion is that Paul’s boldness, compared to Moses, who had to veil his face, derives from the intrinsic superiority of the ministry of Spirit. Having this ministry (Διὰ τοῦτο, ἔχοντες τὴν διακονίαν ταύτην), he continues in 4:1, Paul does not speak with cautious reserve or cunning subtlety (4:2–6); for as he stresses again in 4:7, he is aware of his shortcomings and relies on divine providence to endure the horrors outlined in 4:8–9. The afflictions of 4:8–9 are summarized in 4:10 with a death–life image:

πάντοτε τὴν νέκρωσιν τοῦ Ἰησοῦ ἐν τῷ σώματι περιφέροντες, ἵνα καὶ ἡ ζωὴ τοῦ Ἰησοῦ ἐν τῷ σώματι ἡμῶν φανερωθῇ (always carrying about the death of Jesus in the body, in order that also the life of Jesus might be manifested in our body).

He continues:

11 ἀεὶ γὰρ ἡμεῖς οἱ ζῶντες εἰς θάνατον παραδιδόμεθα διὰ Ἰησοῦν, ἵνα καὶ ἡ ζωὴ τοῦ Ἰησοῦ φανερωθῇ ἐν τῇ θνητῇ σαρκὶ ἡμῶν. 12 ὥστε ὁ θάνατος ἐν ἡμῖν ἐνεργεῖται, ἡ δὲ ζωὴ ἐν ὑμῖν.

For we the living ones are constantly being given over to death through Jesus, in order that also the life of Jesus might be manifested in our mortal flesh. So as death works in us, life works in you.

Here, the resurrectiform shape of the Pauline gospel exhibits the cruciformity of which Gorman speaks. Paul sees a permanence in the Christ event, as if Jesus is constantly being crucified and raised, such that Paul experiences the vicarious manifestation of life in his body (4:8–9). In Gal. 2:19, Paul describes himself as co-crucified with Christ, the net effect of which is a curious but powerful paradox—ζῶδὲ οὐκέτι ἐγώ, ζῇ δὲ ἐν ἐμοὶ Χριστός·ὃ δὲ νῦν ζῶ ἐν σαρκί, ἐν πίστει ζῶ τῇ τοῦ υἱοῦ τοῦ θεοῦ (Gal. 2:20). Paul says ‘I’ no longer ‘live’, but later in the clause “that which I now live, I live by faith in the son of God”. The explanatory idea joins the clauses—Christ lives in me. Jesus’ ‘life’ animates Paul’s new existence. 2 Cor. 4:11–12 further presents this permanence; being “constantly given over to death through Jesus” probably refers to the afflictions Paul suffered on behalf of the Corinthian believers. As 2 Cor. 1:9, suffering is likened to death; the inference of 1:4 is that God’s comfort equips the comforted to offer comfort. The final clause in 4:12 posits a correspondingly vicarious resurrectiformity—“death in us leads to life in others”.

As the section proceeds, Paul sets the present affliction within the wider context of eschatological judgment; the final resurrection will outweigh any present problems in 4:13–18. Then, in 5:1–3, Paul employs a bewildering array of metaphors to describe the final resurrection—tearing down the earthly tent and inheriting a house not made with hands, taking off and putting on clothing, being away from home and being at home. The concluding idea (5:4) is mortality being swallowed up by life (καταποθῇ τὸ θνητὸν ὑπὸ τῆς ζωῆς), which has precedents in 2 Macc. 7:22–23; Isa. 25:8 (MT, cited in 1 Cor. 15:55); Test. Jud. 25:4.

Building on 2 Cor. 4:18 (visible things are temporary and the invisible are eternal), Paul continues that, whilst believers await life to overcome mortality, they are away from the Lord and thus must live by faith (i.e., not by what can be seen (5:5–7)) and strive to please the Lord (5:8–10). As a minister, Paul persuades people to live pleasing the Lord, because he is answerable to God—not because he is looking for congratulations. Whatever extremes of behaviour Paul exhibits in so doing, stem from the controlling influence of Christ’s love (5:11–14). This, Paul concludes because of Christ’s vicarious death—he died for all, rendering all dead; he was raised so that all could share in the risen life, specified in v. 15 as no longer living for oneself.

ἡ γὰρ ἀγάπη τοῦ Χριστοῦ συνέχει ἡμᾶς, κρίναντας τοῦτο, ὅτι εἷς ὑπὲρ πάντων ἀπέθανεν, ἄρα οἱ πάντες ἀπέθανον· 15 καὶ ὑπὲρ πάντων ἀπέθανεν, ἵνα οἱ ζῶντες μηκέτι ἑαυτοῖς ζῶσιν ἀλλὰ τῷ ὑπὲρ αὐτῶν ἀποθανόντι καὶ ἐγερθέντι.

Thus, Paul’s ministry of persuading people to live for Jesus (τῷ ὑπὲρ αὐτῶν ἀποθανόντι καὶ ἐγερθέντι) is decidedly resurrectiform. In 5:17, those ‘in Christ’ are newly created, because Jesus ὑπὲρ πάντων ἀπέθανεν and, as such, all those in Christ ‘died’. ²⁴ However, the καὶ in 5:15 qualifies ἐγείρω as well as ἀποθνήσκω—Jesus rose on behalf of all. ²⁵ Paul intends to exploit the semantic elasticity of ‘live’ in this context. Having declared all dead on the basis of Jesus’ vicarious death in 5:14, the explanation of why in 5:15 employs ζάω twice; firstly in the present participial form (ζῶντες) and then in the present subjunctive active (ζῶσιν). The initial occurrence, denoting “those that live”, refers to the group who have all died by virtue of Christ’s death, who have been made alive by Spirit (3:6); that is, they are eschatologically and soteriologically ‘alive’—not just physically living. The second occurrence, best translated “they might live” or “they should live” signifies the ethical dimension of ‘living’. It is in this same sense that Paul determines believers share in the burial of Christ through baptism ἵνα ὥσπερ ἠγέρθη Χριστὸς ἐκ νεκρῶν διὰ τῆς δόξης τοῦ πατρός, οὕτως καὶ ἡμεῖς ἐν καινότητι ζωῆς περιπατήσωμεν (Rom. 6:4). The paradigm of death in relation to Christ, revivification and ethical conduct associated with the new life is also expressed in Gal. 2:19–20; 5:24–25.

In 2 Cor. 6:1–10, Paul once more argues that any commendation for the success of his ministry originates in his willingness to suffer for the gospel. He speaks freely of the troubles he faces and of the ways God rescues him (vv. 11–13), but fears that the Corinthian disciples are not as free in their openness. Whilst I cannot comment on the numerous difficulties associated with the presence of the seemingly incongruous section in 6:14–7:1, the predominant position seems to be that Paul had composed it at an earlier time and now incorporated it, possibly after a pause in dictation, as a digression, appealing to the Corinthians to sever all their ties with paganism. This brief appraisal is further to expound resurrectiformity in the politics of Paul’s ministry. ²⁶

Addressing the exegesis of 2 Cor. 6:14–7:1, E. Hayes rightly observes that ἡμεῖς γὰρ ναὸς θεοῦ ἐσμεν ζῶντος (2 Cor. 6:16b) is a premise statement. She argues that the rhetorical contrast (agreement between temple and idols) giving rise to the premise statement, summarises the other rhetorical contrasts, and she reads the entire pericope from this vantage. ²⁷ Whilst this is not impossible, the section can be tied more securely to pre-existent themes in 2 Corinthians, which further inform the premise of resurrectiform ministry.

The chief contrast in the premise statement is ‘living God’ vs. ‘dead idols’, the ‘living versus dead’ notion having been shown to permeate the text. Paul described his ministry as ‘life’ to some and ‘death’ to others (2 Cor. 2:16); those bound to Law as external reality hoping to be rectified are killed and those relying on internalized Spirit are made alive (3:6). The thought returns in 5:12–15; Paul commends his ministry from the heart, not in any externalities—a ministry by which the faithful have shared in the death and resurrection of Christ, such that “all died” (5:14) and now “live no longer for themselves but for the one having died for them and been raised” (5:15). In chapter 6, Paul again articulates the rationale for meaningful self-commendation (2 Cor. 6:3–4)—suffering for the gospel. Of this, Paul writes “as having died and behold we live, as disciplined and not being put to death” (6:9).

The premise statement, then, explains why believers should not be yoked with unbelievers, validating the radical holiness implied by the rhetorical questions in 2 Cor. 6:14–16. ²⁸ It is because the living God dwells among the community that the disciples cannot be associated with dead idols, any more than Christ can be associated with Belial or light with darkness. Paul’s ministry in 2 Corinthians can be summed up as a ministry of Spirit-mediated sharing in the death and life of Messiah. There is a common sharing of Spirit in the hearts (2 Cor. 1:22) and so a common sharing in the ‘life’ of Jesus; as such, Paul has the Corinthian disciples in his ‘heart’ (3:2–3; 5:12; 6:11). The combination of Lev. 26:12 and Ezek. 37:27 in 2 Cor. 6:16 has a dual effect. The Ezekiel text recalls how the restoration of Israel from exile and the ratification of the New Covenant (Ezek. 37:26) occur in a resurrection moment (Ezek. 37:1–14). Now the people ‘live’ and God ‘lives’ in and among the community; ²⁹ so there can be no place for dead idols. ³⁰ The Leviticus passage brings idolatry into focus (cf. Lev 26:1).

These ideas carry through to the opening of 2 Cor. 7; the New Covenant is effected by the mediation of ‘life’ by Spirit (2 Cor. 3:6). The commensurate ethical conduct does not necessitate adherence to the codified Torah—that is a ministration of death (3:7). It does, nonetheless, demand a radical holiness (7:1), and Paul wronged no one saying as much (7:2). Again Paul can commend his ministry on the grounds of the positive effect on the community, which comes into full array in 7:3:

πρὸς κατάκρισιν οὐ λέγω· προείρηκα γὰρ ὅτι ἐν ταῖς καρδίαις ἡμῶν ἐστε εἰς τὸ συναποθανεῖν καὶ συζῆν.

I do not speak (a word of) condemnation; for I have said before that you are in our hearts for (us) to die together and to live together.

The death–life motif could simply mean you are in our hearts ‘forever’, pointing to Paul’s enduring affection for the Corinthians as some commentators imply. However, the word order and those places where Paul has indeed said before “you are in our hearts” (1:22; 3:3) point to Paul once again talking about his ministry. The Corinthians are in his heart because they have shared together in the ministry of life-from-death by which they were ‘saved’ (2:15–16). For Paul, corporate death evokes union with Christ (Rom. 6:8; 2 Cor. 5:14; Gal. 2:19; cf. Col. 2:20; 2 Tim. 2:11). Thus, 7:3 is another reference to Paul’s ministry of revivification by the shared experience of Spirit. The invocation of Ezekiel 37 reiterates how the Spirit revivified dead Israel so God could live among them. Through Paul’s ministry, the Spirit makes alive the New Covenant community, where God once more dwells.

3. Summation

So to return to the ideas with which this investigation began: the Pauline corpus is replete with the language of redemption/rescue/deliverance (e.g., Rom. 7:24; 1 Cor. 7:23; 2 Cor. 1:10; Gal. 1:4; Eph. 5:16; Phil. 1:19; Col. 1:13; 1 Thess. 1:10; 2 Thess. 3:2; 1 Tim. 4:16; 2 Tim. 4:17; Tit. 2:14). ³¹ As several interpreters of Paul (myself included) have expanded, prophetic restoration eschatology and ‘Second Exodus’ typology lies in the narrative backdrop of Pauline soteriology. The prophets who codified the message of future restoration from exile routinely did so using portraits of resurrection. The classic example is Ezek. 37:1–14, but such motifs are seen in Isa. 26:19; 57:15–16; Hos. 6:2; Jon. 2:7; etc. Revivification language commonly describes rescue from affliction and suffering in Biblical and Post-Biblical literature (Ps. 70:20; 137:7; Isa. 25:8; Hos. 13:14; 4Q521; Luke 15:32). Even secular Greco-Roman authors articulated their sentences in exile as ‘deaths’ and their return home in terms of life or rebirth. Ovid lamented the distance that exile put between him and his wife saying

Don’t lacerate your cheeks or tear your hair, it’s not now, for a first time, I’m taken from you, mea lux. Think that I perished when I lost my native land: that was an earlier and a deeper death. ³²

Cicero wrote to his friend Atticus of the ‘resuscitation’ of all he had lost when he was exiled using the Greek loanword παλιγγενεσία. ³³ Josephus used the same word to describe Judah’s restoration from Babylon. ³⁴ The chorus of Euripides’ Medea contains the refrain “O country and home, never, never may I be without you, living a hopeless life, hard to pass through and painful; most pitiable of all. Let Death first lay me low and death; free me from this daylight. There is no sorrow above the loss of a native land.”

Such texts certainly appear to represent an established tradition of authors who depict great reversals or transformative experiences as life-from-death. The common factor is the vindication, restoration, or rehabilitation of a person or community communicated as a ‘resurrection’. The critical difference for Paul is that he did not encounter an event which he articulated in terms of resurrection—he encountered a resurrection through which he articulated an event, namely, his ministry of salvation by Spirit-mediated life- giving. In the prophets, revivification images were metaphorical conceptualizations, in which ‘death’ symbolized personal or national disaster, and ‘life’ rescue from it. Two common ideas permeated these dramas; a sense of emotional trauma amongst the people, so acute, that the writers compared it to death (e.g., Job 16:16; Ps. 116:3; Isa. 9:2), and an awareness that remedying the misadventure would be so colossal a volte-face that no amount of military might or political savoir-faire could effect it. Allegorically, it would be like bringing the dead to life; practically, only divine intervention could salvage things. ³⁵

As I have shown, lexically, the undisputed Pauline letters effectively only harness ‘life’ language independently of ‘death’ related imagery, to convey the most mundane sense of existence. Even in Galatians, which only directly references the resurrection of Jesus once, the pervasiveness of the imagery is undeniable (2:19–21; 5:24–25; 6:8; 6:14–15) and instantiates what is perhaps the least ambiguous reason Paul offers for Torah’s incapacity to rectify—the inability to “make alive” (Gal. 3:21). I have further shown that 2 Corinthians houses a deeply embedded nucleus of revivification language exemplary of Paul’s self-perception of the political, social, and theological dynamics of ministry. In a series of emotional and defensive appeals in the letter, Paul asserts his apostolic qualifications, his basic human character, and the reasonableness of his gospel, employing a number of life-from-death motifs. Paul repeatedly demonstrates that he did not understand the overcoming of death as simply something that happened to Jesus, but something that was happening through him. Michael Gorman and others in his vein have done the church and academy alike an indispensable service by shedding invaluable light on the ongoing ramifications of Jesus’ crucifixion in Pauline hermeneutics—and indeed the broader evaluation of discipleship to Jesus. It is hoped that this brief contribution demonstrates why Jesus’ resurrection is an equally pivotal component of the portrait, not to be marginalized.