Structural and Thematic Similarities between Psalm 78(77 LXX):12–32 and Mark 4:35–8:21 in Light of Spatial Settings and Exodus Imagery

Abstract

This article explores the intertextual relationships between Psalm 78(77 LXX):12–32 and Mark 4:35–8:21 in terms of their structural and thematic similarities. The spatial settings of the sea and the desert in both texts function as a framework of the narratives in which Mark 4:35–8:21 reflects the Exodus imagery following the pattern of Psalm 78(77 LXX):12–32. In relation to the main theme, Mark has similarity with the Psalm in that as the Israelites fail in their faith despite experiencing God’s mighty works, the disciples show ignorance of who Jesus is despite witnessing his miraculous works.

Keywords

Psalm 78(77 LXX):12–32 Mark 4:35–8:21 intertextuality sea–desert motifs spatial settings Exodus imagery

Introduction

Space is not simply a place where events take place, but in fact contains historical, ideological, and symbolic implications that lead us to recollect the past or anticipate the future.¹ Some spatial settings in Mark’s narrative—the Jordan River, the sea, the wilderness, the mountain, and so on—lead us to look back to past events in the history of Israel.² These biblical landscapes allude particularly to the event of the Exodus, in which God delivered his people from bondage in Egypt. The Exodus story had been told and retold as it was handed down across the generations: the Israelites not only established their identity on the historical experience of their forefathers in the Exodus from Egypt, they also anticipated their own deliverance in light of this event.³ Observing the significance of the Exodus, Richard J. Clifford suggests its three critical epochs as follows: the first Exodus as foundational event in the thirteenth century bce, the second Exodus as a renewal event of Israel in the sixth century bce; the third Exodus as a decisive redemptive event by Jesus in the first century ce.⁴

Among all the events of the Exodus from Egypt, the most decisive and deeply imprinted on Israel’s memory may have been the crossing of the Red Sea, the provision of manna in the wilderness, and the giving of the Law at Mount Sinai.⁵ The sea, the wilderness, and the mountain were thus remembered as the places where God’s mighty works were performed and his revelation disclosed. Exodus images associated with these spatial settings appear repeatedly in the Old Testament (the OT), Second Temple Jewish literature, and the New Testament (the NT). Thus, these places play a significant role in recalling the events of the Exodus to the Israelites.

Mark portrays Jesus as the one who delivers the people of God from evil powers and Jesus’ redemptive works present “a greater and new Exodus”.⁶ The main spatial settings that recall the Exodus events in Mark’s narrative are: the sea, where Jesus calmed the roaring sea and walked on the water (4:35–41; 6:45–52); the wilderness, where Jesus fed the five thousand and the four thousand (6:31–44; 8:1–10); and the mountain, where Jesus was transfigured (9:2–8). Jesus’ later Galilean ministry (4:35–8:21) and his journey to Jerusalem (8:22–10:52) unfold among the sea, the wilderness, and the mountain, and these places form the framework of Mark’s narrative while echoing the Exodus events. The present study will explore how the spatial settings of the sea and the wilderness in Mark 4:35–8:21 have the intertextual relationships with Psalm 78(77 LXX):12–32 in terms of their structure and theme, reflecting the Exodus events of the victory at the Red Sea and the provision of manna in the wilderness.⁷

Sea–Desert Motifs and Structural Analysis in Mark 4:35–8:21

Howard Clark Kee argues that the two consecutive episodes of Jesus’ feeding of the crowd and walking on the water in Mark 6:31–52 and John 6:5–21 had been handed down together in the tradition.⁸ Emphasizing the new Exodus in Mark, he claims that “the twin motifs of God’s command over the waters and his feeding his own in the desert” frequently appear together in Psalms (78:13–25; 106:9; 107:23–31) and the later prophetic traditions (e.g., Isa. 40:12; 41:18; 51:10).⁹ Though the presence of the twin motifs in the paired episodes of the sea and feeding miracles appears together in Mark 6:31–52 and John 6:5–21, the order of the two episodes does not correspond to that of the original Exodus: while the feeding of the crowd in the wilderness precedes Jesus’ walking on the sea in the paired episodes of Mark and John, the feeding of the Israelites with manna in the desert follows the crossing of the Red Sea in the original Exodus. If Mark uses Exodus imagery in his narrative, the sea miracle should precede the feeding miracle, following the original order of events.

I believe the twin motifs of the sea and feeding miracles can be discovered in a separate form in Mark’s narrative, repeated twice and forming a framework for the cyclic pattern in 4:35–8:10. In the two cycles (4:35–6:44; 6:45–8:10), the first pair of sea and feeding miracles is 4:35–41 and 6:31–44; the second is 6:45–52 and 8:1–10.¹⁰ This manner of pairing episodes according to a cyclic structure differs from Kee’s pairing of the consecutive episodes in 6:31–52 (Jesus’ feeding of the five thousand (6:31–44) and his walking on the water (6:45–52)). Paired as I propose, the sea and feeding miracles in each cycle take place in the same order as the events of the original Exodus. In the first pair, Jesus calmed the roaring sea by rebuking it and then fed the five thousand in the wilderness; in the second pair, Jesus walked on the water and then fed the four thousand in the wilderness. In each cycle, then, the twin motifs recall the events of the Exodus from Egypt, namely, God’s mighty work of parting the Red Sea to allow the Israelites’ crossing (Exod. 14:15–31) and his feeding of the Israelites in the wilderness (16:1–12). Mark 8:11–21 serves as the conclusion of the two cycles, including twin motifs. It consists of two episodes: the Pharisees’ request for a sign (8:11–12) and the discussion of bread in a boat (8:13–21). In particular, the second episode took place in a boat, a discussion about bread, which may reflect both places: the sea and the wilderness. In a thematic dimension, the instruction of the sea and feeding miracles in the two cycles culminates in the discussion of bread on the sea, revealing the disciples’ ignorance. The overall structure of Mark 4:35–8:21 is two cycles (4:35–6:44; 6:45–8:10) and a conclusion (8:11–21).

Sea–Desert Motifs and Structural Analysis in Psalm 78(77 LXX):12–32

To properly understand Mark’s use of Exodus imagery and its theological significance in his account of Jesus’ sea and feeding miracles, it is necessary to investigate how the Exodus events, especially those containing the sea–desert twin motifs, were presented in the OT. The Psalms include many mentions of the Exodus (e.g., Pss. 66, 77, 78, 80, 81, 95, 105, 106, 114, 134, 135, 136).¹¹ Otto Piper sorts these psalms into three categories based on thematic divisions: (1) God’s goodness in leading his people to repentance from unbelief (e.g., Pss. 78, 81 and 95); (2) the greatness of God’s mighty works (e.g., Pss. 105, 106, 114, 134, and 136); and (3) God’s comfort of the distressed people (e.g., Ps. 77).¹² Among these Psalms, Psalm 78(77 LXX):12–32 is especially similar to Mark 4:35–8:21 in terms of the structural pattern and theological theme, including the twin motifs of the sea and the wilderness.

Clifford says that Psalm 78 (77 LXX), the longest psalm that reviews the history of Israel,¹³ consists of five parts: an introduction (vv. 1–11), two recitals (vv. 12–39; 40–72) and two sequels (vv. 33–39; 65–72) and the two recitals and two sequels exhibit strong parallelism.¹⁴ The first recital refers to events in the wilderness and the second recital refers to the events from Egypt to Canaan. Each of the recitals shows the same pattern: God’s mighty and gracious works for Israel (vv. 12–16; 44–55), Israel’s failure in faith (vv. 17–20; 56–58), and the divine anger (vv. 21–32; 59–64).¹⁵ The order of the Exodus events in the first recital (vv. 12–32), in which the psalmist recasts the records of the Exodus in the Pentateuch, is as follows: the crossing of the Red Sea, the guiding by cloud and fire, and the provision of water by splitting rocks in the wilderness (vv. 12–16); Israel’s failure in faith by grumbling about God’s supply of bread and meat (vv. 17–20); Israel’s unbelief in spite of God’s provision of manna and quail and his wrath against them (vv. 21–32).

The main frame of the first recital is the sea and the wilderness. The first recital begins with the crossing of the sea and ends with God’s provision of bread and meat in the wilderness. In the middle of this frame, God’s miraculous works—such as the leading with cloud and fire and the supply of water—are described, along with the Israelites’ complaint about the lack of God’s provision. In the conclusion of the first recital, the psalmist laments that the Israelites showed unbelief despite their experience of God’s mighty works.

In the sequence of the Exodus in Pentateuch,¹⁶ the feeding miracle in the wilderness follows the crossing of the Red Sea and precedes the provision of water by the splitting of rocks.¹⁷ Psalm 78 (77 LXX), however, does not follow this order of events; the sequence in Psalm 78(77 LXX):12–32 is the crossing of the Red Sea, the provision of water by the splitting of rocks, and the feeding miracle in the desert.¹⁸ Here, the reason for uniting the two episodes of the sea-crossing miracle and the provision of water into one great miracle is to make the Israelites’ rebellion appear still more vicious.¹⁹ In addition, God’s mighty power in these two episodes is expressed in the same verb, “to split” (בָּקַע, διαρρήγνυμι; used of God’s splitting the sea and the rocks in 78(77 LXX):13, 15).²⁰ These miraculous works related to water serve as signs for the Israelites to test God by questioning whether he who supplied water could provide bread and meat in the desert (vv. 19, 20). In response to their rebellious attitude, God, full of rage, opened the doors of heaven and rained down manna and meat upon them (vv. 21–24). While manna was God’s gracious gift to Israelites in the Pentateuch, it is here given under “the sign of divine wrath”.²¹ Psalm 78(77 LXX):32 serves as the conclusion ofthe first recital and tells us of the sad result of the Israelites’ repeated and unceasing sins and disbelief in spite of God’s mighty works for them.²² Despite God’s mighty works, the Israelites failed to stand in the faith (Ps. 78(77 LXX):32). Likewise, though Jesus performed miraculous works, especially the two feeding miracles, not only did the Pharisees seek a sign from heaven to test Jesus (Mark 8:11–12), but also the disciples failed to understand who Jesus is and forgot what he had done for them (8:13–21).

Intertextual Relationships between Mark 4–8 and Psalm 78 (77 LXX) and its Theological Significance

Psalm 78 (77 LXX) is directly cited twice in the NT: Ps. 78(77 LXX):2 (ἀνοίξω ἐν παραβολαῖς τὸ στόμα μου φθέγξομαι προβλήματα ἀπ᾽ ἀρχῆς, “I will open my mouth in parables; I will utter hidden things from of old”) is employed as the introduction to the explanation of a parable in Matt. 13:35 (ἀνοίξω ἐν παραβολαῖς τὸ στόμα μου, ἐρεύξομαι κεκρυμμένα ἀπὸ καταβολῆς [κόσμου], “I will open my mouth in parables; I will utter things hidden from the foundation of the world”); Ps. 78(77 LXX):24 (ἄρτον οὐρανοῦ ἔδωκεν αὐτοῖς, “He gave them the bread of heaven”) is cited in John 6:31 (ἄρτον ἐκ τοῦ οὐρανοῦ ἔδωκεν αὐτοῖς φαγεῖν, “He gave them bread from heaven to eat”).²³ In addition, there are many allusions to Psalm 78 (77 LXX) in other NT writings that reflect the events of the Exodus: e.g., 1 Cor. 10:3 alludes to Ps. 78:24–29; v. 4 to Ps. 78:15–16; v. 5 to Ps. 78:31; v. 9 to Ps. 78:18, 56; Acts 8:21 to Ps. 78:37a; Rev. 2:17 to Ps. 78:24. ²⁴ Psalm 78 (77 LXX) may have been well-known to the NT writers and regarded as a historical record and explanation of the Exodus events. As Frank-Lothar Hossfeld and Erich Zenger say, “[e]vidently early Christian scriptural interpretation was aware of Psalm 78 as an independent account of history”.²⁵

Mark’s Gospel also contains quotations of, and allusions to, the Psalms,²⁶ and I believe the sea and feeding miracles in Mark may allude to the Exodus events described in Psalm 78 (77 LXX). Because the crossing of the Rea Sea and the provision of manna in the desert are the key events in the Exodus story,²⁷ Psalm 78(77 LXX):12–32 may use these two miracles to give an instruction. In a similar way, Mark may follow Psalm 78(77 LXX):12–32 by providing a lesson from the sea and feeding miracles. In its account of sea and feeding miracles, Psalm 78(77 LXX):12–32 contrasts the Israelites’ ceaseless disbelief and rebellion with God’s merciful deliverance and provision. Similarly, Mark 4:35–8:21 contrasts the disciples’ persistent incomprehension and hardened hearts with Jesus’ merciful redemption and care. Despite seeing God’s mighty works, the Israelites constantly grumbled and even rebelled against God (Ps. 78(77 LXX):17). Likewise, despite witnessing Jesus’ miracles, the disciples constantly displayed their incomprehension of Jesus’ identity and even developed hardened hearts (Mark 8:17). Nevertheless, God guided the Israelites and provided for them in his mercy, and Jesus cared for and fed the disciples and the crowd in his grace.

We can also discover verbal parallels between Psalm 78 (77 LXX) and Mark 4:35–8:21. Psalm 78 (77 LXX) has intertextual relationships with the account of the feeding of the five thousand in Mark 6:31–44.²⁸ Mark 6:42 (καὶ ἔφαγον πάντες καὶ ἐχορτάσθησαν, “and they all ate and were satisfied”) is parallel to Psalm 78(77 LXX):29 (καὶ ἐφάγοσαν καὶ ἐνεπλήσθησαν σφόδρα, “and they ate and were filled exceedingly”).²⁹ The image of a crowd “like sheep without shepherd” (ὡς πρόβατα μὴ ἔχοντα ποιμένα) in Mark 6:34 refers to images of the Exodus guided by God in Psalm 78(77 LXX):52–55, 70–72 (ἀπῆρεν ὡς πρόβατα τὸν λαὸν αὐτοῦ, “he led out his people like sheep”, v. 52; ἔλαβεν αὐτὸν ποιμαίνειν Ιακωβ τὸν λαὸν αὐτοῦ, “he brought him to be the shepherd of his people Jacob”, v. 71).³⁰ Psalm 78 (77 LXX) also shows similarities with Mark 8:1–12 (the feeding of the four thousand and looking for a sign to test God): Mark 8:4 (“Where will anyone be able [δυνήσεται] to get the loaves [ἄρτων] to satisfy these people here in the wilderness [ἐπ᾽ ἐρημίας]?”) is parallel to Psalm 78(77 LXX):19–20 (“Will God be able [δυνήσεται] to prepare a table in the wilderness [ἐν ἐρήμῳ]? … Is he able to give bread [ἄρτον]?”); and Mark 8:11 (“…seeking from him a sign from heaven, testing [πειράζοντες] him”) to Psalm 78(77 LXX):18 (“They tested [ἐξεπείρασαν] God in their heart….”).³¹ Joel Marcus argues that Mark’s use of “the Exodus typology” of Psalm 78 (77 LXX) can be seen not only in striking verbal parallels but also in his use of the thematic pattern of wilderness wanderings.³² Mark’s narrative follows the pattern of the Exodus in Psalm 78(77 LXX):19–20: just as the Israelites grumbled about their situation and tested God, even after experiencing his mighty works, Jesus’ disciples doubted his ability to provide food in the wilderness and his opponents tested him even after seeing and hearing his miracles.³³

Parallels in pattern (order), setting, wording, and theme between Psalm 78(77 LXX):12–32 and Mark 4:35–8:21 demonstrate the intertextual relationships between the two passages. According to Willard M. Swartley, “in Psalm 78 (see vv. 13–31) Israel’s deliverance from bondage, its rebellion in the wilderness, and God’s guidance and provision of bread from heaven are all intertwined.”³⁴ In Psalm 78(77 LXX):12–32, we see a pattern of deliverance at the sea, Israel’s rebellion, provision of food in the wilderness, and lamentation for Israel’s unbelief. A similar pattern appears in Mark 4:35–8:21: the disciples’ deliverance at the sea, Jesus’ rejection by his hometown, the feeding of the disciples and the crowd in the wilderness, and lamentation over the disciples’ incomprehension and hardened hearts. Here, the sea and the wilderness function as the main settings that reveal a similar pattern in the two texts.

In particular, the sea-crossing and the feeding of the people play a role of framework for the beginning and ending of episodes in both Psalm 78(77 LXX):12–32 and Mark 4:35–8:21. The crossing of the Red Sea corresponds to the crossing of the Sea of Galilee; the feeding with manna and meat in the wilderness corresponds to the feeding with bread and fish in the wilderness. The conclusions of both texts are similar, in that the Israelites and the disciples continued in a state of unbelief despite experiencing miracles. Both concluding statements are laments for failure in faith and understanding: in spite of the feeding miracles, the Israelites still sinned and did not believe (Ps. 78(77 LXX):32), and the disciples did not yet understand (Mark 8:21). In their use of the deliverance at the sea and the provision in the wilderness as a bracketing framework (Ps. 78(77 LXX):12–31 and Mark 4:35–6:44; 6:45–8:10), and in their concluding notes of unbelief (Ps. 78(77 LXX):32 and Mark 8:11–21), Psalm 78(77 LXX):12–32 and Mark 4:35–8:21 exhibit structural parallelism. Therefore, as Psalm 78 (77 LXX):12–32 uses the miracle episodes to draw a contrast between the Israelites’ unbelief and God’s merciful works in the Exodus story, Mark follows this structural pattern by contrasting the disciples’ incomprehension with Jesus’ gracious ministry in the miracle stories.

Within this framework, doubt and rejection of God and Jesus appear in both texts alongside miraculous works. In the first recital in Psalm 78(77 LXX):12–32, God showed the mighty works of leading the Israelites by cloud and fire and of giving the provision of water by splitting rocks (vv. 14–16), but the Israelites rebelled against him and tested him by demanding food (vv. 17–22). In the first cycle in Mark 4:35–6:44, Jesus performed miraculous works such as exorcism (5:1–20) and healing (vv. 21–43), but his hometown took offense at him (6:1–6a).³⁵ Both the Israelites and the disciples forgot the miraculous works they had seen (Ps. 78(77 LXX):11; Mark 8:14) and rejected God and Jesus.³⁶

Both texts also show a cyclic pattern: in Psalm 78(77 LXX):12–32, 40–64, two recitals are concluded with two sequels (vv. 33–39, 65–72), and in Mark 4:35–6:44; 6:45–8:10, two cycles are followed by a conclusion (8:11–21). According to Edward L. Greenstein, “[t]he two-dimensional mapping of Psalm 78’s structure produces a cyclic pattern of ideological significance”: God’s mighty and gracious acts and the Israelites’ disobedience appear at the same time.³⁷ Mark 4:35–8:21 also shows the mixture of two motifs, presenting a cyclic pattern: Jesus’ miraculous and gracious works and the disciples’ ignorance. In conclusion, the parallelism between the first recital of Psalm 78(77 LXX):12–32 and the first cycle and conclusion of Mark (4:35–6:44; 8:11–21) may be summarized in terms of their verbal and thematic agreement and similarity of order and setting as follows:³⁸

Psalm		Mark
78(77 LXX):13 78(77 LXX):14–16 78(77 LXX):17–20 78(77 LXX):23–29 78(77 LXX):18 78(77 LXX):11³⁹ 78(77 LXX):32	the crossing of the sea (θάλασσα) the miraculous works the rebellion and rejection the provision of bread (ἄρτος) in the wilderness (ἔρημος) the testing (πειράζω) of providing a sign the forgetting (ἐπιλανθάνομαι) of the mighty works the failure of belief and understanding	4:35–41 5:1–43 6:1–6a (cf. 6:14–29) 6:31–44 8:11 8:14 8:21⁴⁰

Conclusion

The sea–desert twin motifs appear frequently in the Psalms and Isaiah. In particular, Psalm 78(77 LXX):12–32, a historical poem describing the Exodus events, provides strong structural parallelism with Mark 4:35–8:21, in that the sea and the wilderness serve to frame the beginning and end in the passage. Just as God begins by delivering the Israelites during a sea-crossing and ends by feeding them with manna at the wilderness in Psalm 78(77 LXX):12–32, Jesus begins with rescuing his disciples at the sea during a sea-crossing and ends by feeding the crowd at the wilderness in Mark 4:35–6:44 and 6:45–8:10. Thematic parallelism is also evident, for just as the Israelites failed to stand in belief despite experiencing God’s mighty works, the disciples do not understand who Jesus is despite seeing Jesus’ miraculous works (8:11–21).

Footnotes

1

In Mark’s narrative, space is not just an inert container or backdrop for events. Rather, Markan space serves to recollect past events with theological implications. Mark describes the places Jesus visited on his missional journey with attention to Mark’s own historical and theological perspective, cosmological and eschatological implications, and events of Israel’s history. David Rhoads, Joanna Dewey, and Donald Michie, Mark as Story: An Introduction to the Narrative of a Gospel, 2d edn (Minneapolis, MN: Augsburg Fortress, 1999), 69–70. For example, the Sea of Galilee is, strictly speaking, not a “sea” (θάλασσα), but a “lake”(λíμνη). Mark should have employed the geographical accurate term “lake” instead of “sea”, but uses the “Sea” of Galilee, where Jesus’ miracles were performed, in order to reflect the Red “Sea”, where the Israelites escaped from the Egyptian army in the Exodus. In addition, the word “sea” contains the images of threat or chaos, allowing Jesus’ miracles to be interpreted in a cosmological or eschatological aspect. See Elizabeth Struthers Malbon, ‘The Jesus of Mark and the Sea of Galilee’, JBL 103 (1984): 363–77, on 376.

2

Rhoads, Dewey, and Michie (Mark as Story, 69–70) say that these settings make readers reminisce about old memories of Israel’s past and relate Jesus’ salvific ministry to God’s deliverance of the Israelites. Stephen H. Smith (A Lion with Wings: A Narrative-Critical Approach to Mark’s Gospel (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic, 1996), 152–6) emphasizes the significance of Mark’s spatial description in relation to the OT background, especially the Exodus, and examines the theological meanings of the places such as the Sea of Galilee, the Jordan River, mountains, and wilderness.

3

Bernhard W. Anderson (Understanding the Old Testament, 3rd edn (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1975), 8) refers to the importance of the Exodus as the starting point of Israel’s history. The history of the Israelites’ mind begins not so much with Abraham or the Creation but with the Exodus from Egypt. From the decisive event of the Exodus, the Israelites looked back on their past and anticipated their future.

4

Richard J. Clifford, ‘The Exodus in the Christian Bible: The Case for “Figural” Reading’, TS 63 (2002): 345–61, on 345.

5

Though events like the ten plagues, the Passover, water from the rock, and the Israelites’ rebellion against Moses are also important in the Exodus story, memories about the places where events took place are strongly related to the sea, the wilderness, and the mountain. See Otto A. Piper, ‘Unchanging Promises: Exodus in the New Testament’, Int 11 (1957): 3–22, on 3.

6

Fred L. Fisher (‘New and Greater Exodus: The Exodus Pattern in the New Testament’, SwJT 20 (1977): 69–79,on 69) says that Mark describes Jesus’ redemptive story by reflecting the Exodus story and following its pattern. The Jordan River is also a reminder of the Exodus story, alluding to the entering of the promised land. It functions as the barrier between the wilderness and the promised land, and Joshua parted the water for the Israelites to cross the river in the same way that the previous generation had crossed the Red Sea. See Piper, ‘Unchanging Promises’, 17; Rhoads, Dewey, and Michie, Mark as Story, 69; Smith, A Lion with Wings, 154.

7

Because Mark is believed to refer to the Septuagint (LXX: the Greek translation version of the Hebrew Bible), I will investigate relevant LXX passages while comparing between the two passages. In addition, since the study of the intertextual relationships between the two passages is performed in terms of verbal agreement, the LXX should be used for this study. Psalm 78 in the Hebrew Bible (our present Bible) corresponds to Psalm 77 in the LXX, and so I will mark the chapter like 78 (77 LXX). The English translation is taken from Pietersma Albert and Benjamin G. Wright (eds), A New English Translation of the Septuagint (New York: Oxford University Press, 2007).

8

Howard Clark Kee, Community of the New Age: Studies in Mark’s Gospel (Philadelphia, PA: Westminster, 1977), 112.

9

Kee, Community of the New Age, 112.

10

For a structure of pairing sea and feeding miracles in Mark 4–8 by producing two cycles. See Paul J. Achtemeie, ‘Toward the Isolation of Pre-Markan Miracle Catenae’, JBL 89 (1970): 265–91; Malbon, ‘The Jesus of Mark and the Sea of Galilee’, 363–77; Werner H. Kelber, The Kingdom in Mark: A New Place and a New Time (Philadelphia, PA: Fortress, 1974), 45–65.

11

See R. E. Nixon, The Exodus in the New Testament, TNTL (London: Tyndale, 1963), 8–9; Piper, ‘Unchanging Promises’, 5; Kee, Community of the New Age, 112.

12

Piper, ‘Unchanging Promises’, 5.

13

According to James L. Mays (Psalms, IBC (Louisville, KY: John Knox, 1994), 254), Pss. 105, 106, and 136 are frequently categorized as “historical psalms” owing to the “common dominant feature”, though these Psalms cannot be said as “historical” since they are related to “the past and its bearing on present and future”. Refer also to Frank-Lothar Hossfeld and Erich Zenger, Psalms 2: A Commentary on Psalms 51–100, trans. Linda M. Maloney, Hermeneia (Minneapolis, MN: Fortress, 2005), 286. There has been a discussion about the genre of Psalm 78. Hans-Joachim Kraus (Psalms 60–150, trans. Hilton C. Oswald (Minneapolis, MN: Fortress, 1993), 535–48) regards it asa historical psalm. On the contrary, Otto Eissfeldt (The Old Testament: An Introduction, Including the Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha, and Also the Works of Similar Type from Qumran: The History of the Formation of the Old Testament, trans. Peter R. Ackroyd (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1965), 124–7) classifies it as a wisdom poem. Hermann Gunkel (Die Psalmen, 4th edn, HKAT 2/2 (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1929), 342) considers it as a mixture of genres, namely “Sagenerzählung” (legend), “Hymnus” (hymn), “prophetische Mahnrede” (prophetic warning), and “Weisheitsdichtung” (wisdom poetry). For a discussion of genre, see Hossfeld and Zenger, Psalms 2, 286–7.

14

Richard J. Clifford, ‘In Zion and David A New Beginning: An Interpretation of Psalm 78’, in Baruch Halpern and Jon D. Levenson (eds), Traditions in Transformation: Turning Points in Biblical Faith, (Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 1981), 121–41, on 129. Clifford focuses on the structure and arrangement of the source in Psalm 78 (77 LXX) and discovered its outline with “the aid of formal devices such as repetition of key words and phrases, chiasm, paronomasia or word play, and especially in the parallel structure of the two historical recitals” (127). For those who follow the structural analysis laid out by Clifford, see Mays, Psalms,255; Marvin E. Tate, Psalms, 3 vols. (WBC; Nashville, TN: Thomas Nelson, 1990), vol. 2, 287–8. George W. Coats (Rebellion in the Wilderness: The Murmuring Motif in the Wilderness, Traditions of the Old Testament (Nashville, TN: Abingdon, 1968), 223–4), who emphasizes traditions, proposed a structure composed of “a twofold introduction” (vv. 1–8 (1–4 and 5–8)) and “three different units of traditions” (vv. 9–72): “the positive tradition of Yahweh’s aid to Israel in the wilderness” (vv. 9–16); “the negative element of Israel’s idolatry in the land” (vv. 44–66); and “the murmuring tradition as it appears in the Pentateuch” (vv. 17–41 and 67–72). Anthony F. Campbell (‘Psalm 78: A Contribution to the Theology of Tenth Century Israel’, CBQ 41 (1979): 51–79, on 59–60) stresses the theme of rejection (vv. 9–14) and election (vv. 65–72). John Goldingay (Psalms, 3 vols., BCOTWP (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2006), vol. 2, 480–1) proposes a concentric structure, arguing that the main theme of Psalm 78 (77 LXX), located at the center, is “Israel’s failure and God’ grace” (vv. 32–43). In a similar way, Willem A. VanGemeren (Psalms, rev. edn, EBC (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2008), 591) suggests a symmetrical structure, claiming that “[t]he psalmist alternates between Israel’s rebellion and God’s faithfulness”. He first presents a large frame―“Call to Wisdom (vv. 1–4)”; “Lesson from Israel’s History (vv. 5–64)”; and “Good News: God Has Chosen David (vv. 65–72)”―and then provides the symmetrical structure of the central didactic section. As VanGemeren says, it is difficult to determine the structure of Psalm 78 (77 LXX) (591). Nevertheless, I believe Clifford’s proposed structure is persuasive because it takes into consideration many diverse literary and thematic elements that contribute to poetic structure: e.g., repetition, paronomasia, literary and thematic parallelism. Despite scholarly disagreement on the structure of Psalm 78 (77 LXX), there is the general consensus that this Psalm shows the contrasts between Israel’s disbelief and God’s grace and between the rejection of Ephraim and the election of David.

15

In agreement with the Clifford’s proposed structure, May (Psalms, 255) suggests the following simple structure for Ps 78 (77 LXX): “introduction” (vv. 1–11); “the failure of the ancestors of the wilderness generation” (vv. 12–39); “the failure of the ancestors that happened in Ephraimite territory” (vv. 40–72). Psalm 78 (77 LXX) shows the characteristics of a “parable (mashal)” and “riddles (hidot) from the past” (v. 2). It is mashal, in that it deals with instruction: those who hear it will be taught not to follow their ancestors’ unfaithfulness and disobedience. It is also hidot, in that it contains inference: from the events in the past, those who hear it will infer meanings in the present.

16

Richard D. Patterson (‘Victory at Sea: Prose and Poetry in Exodus 14–15’, BSac 161 (2004): 42–45, on 44) divides the major stages of the Israelites’ journey from Egypt to Sinai, which are differentiated by the repeated phrase“and they departed from”, as follows: “The narrative of the Re(e)d [sic] Sea crossing forms a pivotal part of a larger narrative detailing the Hebrews’ journey from Egypt to Sinai (Exod. 12:37–19:2). The major stages of the itinerary are marked structurally by the recurring phrase ‘and they departed from’. The narrative traces the Israelites’ movement from Egypt to Succoth (12:37–13:19), from Succoth to the sea (13:20–15:21), from the sea to the oasis at Elim (15:22–27), from Elim to the Desert of Sin (16:1–36), from Sin to Rephidim (17:1–18:27), and from Rephidim to Sinai (19:1–2)”. Julien Harvey (‘La typologie de l’Exode dans les Psaumes’, ScEccl 15 (1963): 383–405, on 383–86)suggests the five significant events of the Exodus story: “(1) Israelites’ departure from Egypt; (2) the miraculous crossing of the Red Sea; (3) wandering and grumbling in the wilderness; (4) God’s revelation at Sinai; (5) the Israelites’ entry into the Promised Land”.

17

Hossfeld and Zenger, Psalms 2, 286.

18

Hossfeld and Zenger (Psalms 2, 286) argues that theportrayal of the Exodus events in Psalm 78 (77 LXX) takes a “local progression” rather than “temporal progression”: “Beginning in Egypt, v. 12; wilderness, vv. 15, 17, 19, (40); (Egypt, vv. 43, 51); wilderness, v. 52; land/mountain, v. 54; Shiloh, v. 60; Mount Zion, v. 68”.

19

Clifford, ‘An Interpretation of Psalm 78’, 132. In contrast with Clifford, Hans-Joachim Kraus (Psalms 60–150, 127) claims that the psalmist simply combined the manna story with the rock story by way of “original transitions”, not paying attention to the “chronological order”: “The singer of Psalm 78 waives all given dispositions of tradition; he does not strive for chronological succession but combines the individual transmissions by means of original transitions. Thus a reflection about the people that leads to the story of the manna is immediately joined to the miracle of the rock”. However, I do not believe Kraus gave a proper explanation for why the psalmist arranged the rock story in front of the manna story. I believe Clifford’s argument is more convincing than that of Kraus, in that the psalmist probably separated the crossing of the Red Sea and the provision of manna in the wilderness, while combining the crossing of the Red Sea and the provision of water by the splitting of rocks in order to describe Israelites’ rebellion as a more evil one.

20

In Hebrew poetry, the sea (v. 13) is paralleled with the river (v. 16) in the similar setting of “the waters” (יָם, ὕδωρ; vv. 13, 15, 16). Clifford, ‘An Interpretation of Psalm 78’, 132.

21

Clifford, ‘An Interpretation of Psalm 78’, 133. In response to the Israelites’ hideous testing of God, he not only supplied them with food, but also smote them at the same time. This implies the close relationship between “God’s grace and his judgment”. Artur Weiser, The Psalms: A Commentary, OTL (Philadelphia, PA: Westminster, 1962), 541.

22

Tate, Psalms, vol. 2, 291.

23

Hossfeld and Zenger, Psalms 2, 301.

24

Hossfeld and Zenger, Psalms 2, 301.

25

Hossfeld and Zenger, Psalms 2, 301.

26

Arguing for the significance of Mark’s use of the Psalms, Timothy J. Geddert (‘The Use of Psalms in Mark’, BT 1 (2009): 109–24, on 111) lists Mark’s direct quotations from the Psalms as follows: “God’s voice from heaven at Jesus’ baptism quotes Psalm 2; the pilgrims who celebrate the king on the colt quote Psalm 118; Jesus then also quotes Psalm 118 and later Psalm 110 in the temple, and he quotes Psalm 22 from the cross.”

27

Morna D. Hooker, The Gospel According to Saint Mark, BNTC (Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1991), 169.

28

Adela Yarbro Collins, Mark: A Commentary, Hermeneia (Minneapolis, MN: Fortress, 2007), 326. Refer also to Robert A. Guelich, Mark 1–8:26, WBC (Nashville, TN: Thomas Nelson, 1989), 336; Robert H. Stein, Mark, BECNT (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2008), 313; David E. Garland, Mark, NIVAC (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 1996), 257; Hooker, The Gospel According to Saint Mark, 169.

29

While Psalm 78(77 LXX):29 employs the similar word ἐμπίπλημι (“to satisfy” or “to fill quite full”) which “prepares for the criticism of the people’s attitude in the following verse of the psalm”, Mark uses the word χορτάζω (“to satisfy”, v. 42) which implies “the modest nature of the banquet hosted by Jesus”. The word πάντες (“all”) in Mark 6:42 indicates “the greatness of the miracle” by Jesus: πάντες serves as the preparation to disclose the number of the crowd who ate in v. 44. Collins, Mark, 326.

30

Rikki E. Watts, ‘Mark’ in G. K. Beale and D. A. Carson (eds), Commentary on the New Testament Use of the Old Testament (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2007), 111–249, on 159.

31

Joel Marcus, Mark 1–8: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary, AB (New York: Doubleday, 2000), 483–4.

32

Marcus, Mark 1–8, 481, 495.

33

Marcus, Mark 1–8, 495.

34

Willard M. Swartley, Israel’s Scripture Traditions and the Synoptic Gospels: Story Shaping Story (Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1994), 46.

35

The execution of John the Baptist (Mark 6:14–29) also implies the rejection of Jesus, since John’s death alludes to Jesus’ death: “Mark’s account of John’s death prepares for his story of Jesus’ death”. John R. Donahue and Daniel Harrington, The Gospel of Mark, SP 2 (Collegeville, PA: Liturgical Press, 2002), 202.

36

The fact that the disciples forgot to bring bread is connected to their imperceptiveness of the meaning of Jesus’ miraculous feedings of the five thousand and the four thousand.

37

Edward L. Greenstein, ‘Mixing Memory and Design: Reading Psalm 78’, Proof 10 (1990): 197–218, on 199. Watts (‘Mark’, 161) also points out a similar pattern betweenPsalm 78 (77 LXX) and Mark 4–8 in terms of the sea and feeding episodes, focusing particularly on shepherd imagery: “Interestingly, just as Ps. 78 links God’s care for Israel in his power over the sea and provision of food in the Exodus (78:12–20) with his appointment of David to shepherd them (78:70–72), so too Mark presents Jesus as Israel’s shepherd in the context of a feeding followed by a demonstration of his power over the sea on behalf of the Twelve, the Israel that he has reconstituted around himself (see 6:51–52, where Mark links the significance of both events)”. Mark may have intentionally presented Jesus’ miracle as the awaited new Exodus, with the sea and the wilderness serving for its setting. Watts emphasizes that “Mark’s motif of the fulfillment of return from exile and his high Christology are in view”.

38

As we have seen, the second cycle of Mark 6:45–8:10 also shows parallelism with Psalm 78(77 LXX):12–32. The bracket frames of the sea and wilderness miracles are parallel between Mark and the Psalm. The doubt of the Israelites and the disciples that God and Jesus are able (δύναμαι) to give loaves (ἄρτος) in the wilderness (ἔρημος) also appears in both texts (Ps. 78(77 LXX):19–20; Mark 8:4). In addition, the Israelites tested (ἐκπειράζω, Ps. 78(77 LXX):18) God and the Pharisees tested (πειράζω, Mark 8:11) Jesus.

39

Though Psalm 78(77 LXX):11 belongs to the introductory part, this verse serves as the ground of the interpretation of the Exodus events in the following recitals. Since the Israelites forgot God’s miraculous works, they constantly failed to have faith and kept on sinning.

40

Mark 4:35–8:21 follows the pattern of the description of the Exodus events in Psalm 78(77 LXX):12–32, in which both conclusions are the failure of faith and understanding of the Israelites and the disciples.