The Influence of the Bible in Shaping the Negative Viewpoint of Korean Christians towards Nature

1. Introduction

There are already many studies regarding the various ideologies which disturb environmental justice or environmental care. These studies suggest such ideologies as capitalism, consumerism, and economic neoliberalism. The primary purpose of this paper is not to figure out the culprit of the current environmental predicament. Instead, the main goal of this paper is to understand the indifference of the Korean Protestant church in terms of environmental care. The second purpose of this article is to find a way to use the New Testament as a resource through which to ground Korean environmental ethics as well as environmental ethics for Christians around the world.

Thus, this paper first seeks to explain the stance of the Korean Protestant church, which is an apathetic stance towards environmental issues. And then, I would like to deal with a theological factor, namely, New Testament eschatology and its influence upon Korean Protestantism in terms of a negative viewpoint towards environmental care. Finally, this paper offers one ecological reading strategy for the eschatological texts in the New Testament.

2. Background: The Four Major Rivers Restoration Project and the Korean Protestant Churches’ Responses

The lack of environmental concern among the majority of Korean Protestant Christian churches haunts the political as well as the natural landscape of the country. The Four Major River Restoration Project (July 2009 – October 2011) in South Korea, which was initiated by former president Lee Myung-bak, also a devout Christian elder in a Presbyterian church, has caused environmental damage to South Korean rivers. In fact, the Project officially was started with five core goals: 1. securing water supply. 2. flood control. 3. water quality improvement and ecosystem restoration. 4. development of spaces for cultural and leisure activities. 5. regional development around four major rivers (Han, Geum, Nak Dong, and Yeongsan Rivers). To achieve these goals, this project requires a number of large scale dams to be constructed in the four major rivers which inevitably can block the flow of water. ¹ Many people claimed that this project was part of the proposal to build long inland transport canal (340 miles) across the country from Seoul which is the largest city of the northernmost region of South Korea to Busan which is the largest city of the southernmost region of South Korea. ² Impacts include changing the natural flow of the rivers, increased erosion, a severe algae outbreak, destruction of ecosystems (disappearance of endangered fish) and the separation of people from nature. ³ In July 2009 while most civic organizations, environmental groups and religious groups, including Buddhists and Catholics ⁴ , participated in a movement against the Four Major River Restoration Project due to the potential environmental damage, most Protestant denominations either supported it or evaded comment on whether they approved of the plan because of the economic benefits of the Project. ⁵

The mainline Protestant Korean support for the Four River Restoration Project is even more striking when one notes that an international conference of the World Council of Churches titled “Justice, Peace, and the Integrity of Creation” was held in Seoul in 1990. Despite this conference’s emphasis on care of the environment, the majority of Korean Protestant churches have failed to recognize or respond to the ecological issues in the country.

In fact, Korean churches have great potential power for addressing and ameliorating today’s environmental issues in South Korea; about 20% of the total population of Korea are Christians, and Christians play pivotal and influential public roles in government agencies, institutions of higher education, medical institutions, media organizations and so on. Thus, if anyone raises an ethical awareness about “keeping God’s Earth” in those places, the attitude of Korean Christians toward their ecosystem could be significantly changed.

This leads me in turn to the question, “What kind of Christian theology and eschatology in particular, has shaped these attitudes of Korean Christians towards the ecological problems?”

3. Korean Christians’ Interpretive tradition regarding N.T. Eschatological Texts

According to biblical and systematic scholars such as David Horrell, N. T. Wright, Richard Bauckham, Ernst Conradie, and Jürgen Moltmann, Christian eschatology shapes Christians’ views and attitudes towards the environment. ⁶ In other words, beliefs in terms of the ultimate destiny of the earth and of believers have a profound impact on Christians’ attitudes towards the environment. Environmental ethics seems to focus on ‘sustainability’, but if someone believes that the present world will soon be brought to an end, or that Christians will soon be raptured at the Parousia, then they might have different perspectives towards the environment. Actually, the early Protestant Korean Christians were heavily influenced by such eschatology, so-called historical premillennialism and premillennial dispensationalism.

Korean Christians have interpreted the biblical eschatological literature through the lens of Historical-Premillennialism and Premillennial Dispensationalism that envisages a total destruction of nature, and this has played a pivotal role in building up their negative viewpoints toward the environment. However, as has often been noted in recent decades, it is difficult to find a positive and ecologically constructive view of the environment within the New Testament texts, because so many texts contain eschatological visions of cosmic catastrophe (e.g., Mk 13:24-25; Heb 12:25-29; 2 Pet 3:5-13; Rev 6:12-17). At first glance, these eschatological descriptions seem unlikely resources to inspire environmental ethics due to the predestined devastation of nature featured in them, even though these cosmic destructions are a part of a process whereby creation is transformed.

On the other hand, as has also often been noted, there are eschatological New Testament texts, such as Rom 8:19-23; Col 1:15-20 and Rev 21:1-7, 22:1-5, which illustrate human reconciliation to creation and cosmic peace through God’s action in Christ. These texts inspire a more positive environmental ethics. However, such ambivalent and uncertain implications of the biblical texts for the eschatological vision of the New Testament concerning the environment and the earth’s future imply significant and difficult questions in terms of the function and influence of the biblical texts in shaping Christian thought and behaviour towards nature. It may raise questions such as what kind of interpretation or reading of the Bible is appropriate, and what is the exact meaning and implication of the various biblical texts. Such biblical texts, in terms of the future vision of nature, not only could foster a negative point of view towards nature, but could also lead Christians to indifference regarding their ethical response towards the environment. Unfortunately, the early Korean Christians read these eschatological texts with the lens of Premillennial Dispensationalism which came from the early western missionaries to Korea causing much apathy among Korean Protestant Christians towards environmental issues today.

4. The Spread of Premillennial Dispensationalism in the United States of America and its influence on the early western missionaries to Korea

When the early western missionaries came to Korea, there was a serious debate between fundamentalism and liberalism (modernism) in western societies, particularly in the United States of America(USA). However, the liberal theology camp did not have a great interest in missionary work. George M. Marsden described this situation as follows:

Mission work was a crucial factor in the emergence of fundamentalism as an organized movement, and long remained one of the most hotly debated issues in both the Baptist and Presbyterian denominations. Conservatism was strong in the mission field and so was dispensational premillennialism. As we have seen, mission had been a positive force for creating a sense of unity among revivalists and other conservative evangelicals. ⁷

Moreover, after the Civil War in the USA, World Wars I & II and the Great Depression caused optimism to collapse and Postmillennialism to decline. As a result, the more pessimistic historical view of Premillennialism became prevalent. ⁸ According to Paul S. Boyer, Premillennial Dispensationalism was embraced by many North American evangelicals in the late 19^th century. ⁹

Although there is controversy surrounding the origin of Premillennial Dispensationalism, the majority of scholars are agreed that John N. Darby (1800-1892) built the organized theological system of Premillennial Dispensationalism and can be considered to be its father or originator. ¹⁰ Even though Darby was British, his theology – and particularly his eschatology – contributed powerfully to the development of American fundamentalism. ¹¹ According to Barbara R. Rossing, there are many people, institutions, and conferences which popularized Darby’s eschatology: ¹²

Prophecy conferences and radio programs sponsored by Chicago’s Moody Bible Institute and a number of Bible schools elaborated on Darby’s timetable and end-times system. Early dispensationalist promoters included wealthy Chicago businessman William Black Stone (author of the 1878 work Jesus is Coming), ¹³ an avid Zionist, and Lewis Chafer, a Presbyterian who founded the dispensationalists’ training centre, the Dallas Theological Seminary, in 1924. More recent disciples of Darby include the many graduates and associates of Dallas Theological Seminary such as John Walvoord (president of the seminary from 1952 to 1986), Charles Ryrie, and Hal Lindsey, as well as televangelists, Bible school graduates, and many others. ¹⁴

Darby “became a popular preacher in the Bible conference movement, a sort of Chautauqua dedicated to disseminating to lay people the latest eschatological discoveries.” ¹⁵ Darby insisted the eschatology of 1 Thess. 4:13-18 meant that “Christ would end the present era, or dispensation, of history by an imminent secret rapture of the faithful to heaven.” ¹⁶ Darby also claimed the political and military situation around the world was a sign of a coming World War. He identified Gog in the Book of Revelation 20:8 to be Russia. ¹⁷

Since then there have been two important figures in the development of Premillennial Dispensationalism in the United States of America: James H. Brookes (1830-1897) and Cyrus I. Scofield (1843-1921). Not only was Brookes one of the important leaders of the Niagara Prophetic Conferences but he also contributed to refining and propagating Premillennial Dispensationalism. Moreover, Scofield was a well-known figure promulgating this eschatology by the publication of the Scofield Reference Bible in 1909. This volume was very popular in the USA, ¹⁸ and was the most important method in spreading/circulating Premillennial Dispensationalism. ¹⁹ James Barr discusses the extent of influence of the Scofield Reference Bible as follows:

The influence of the Scofield Bible has been historically enormous. It is said that two million copies were sold in the first generation. . . The book has thus been subtly but powerfully influential in spreading those views among hundreds of thousands who have regularly read that Bible. ²⁰

Another important person is Hal Lindsey (1929 - ). He is a Premillennial Dispensationalist and Christian writer in the USA with a Masters degree in theology from Dallas Theological Seminary, majoring in the New Testament and early Greek literature. He has written numerous books, including The Everlasting Hatred: The Roots of Jihad, ²¹ The Liberation of Planet Earth ²² , There’s a New World Coming, ²³ and The Late, Great Planet Earth. ²⁴ The Late, Great Planet Earth in particular played a crucial role in introducing and popularizing Premillennial Dispensationalism in the USA and around the world. ²⁵

The early western missionaries to Korea, especially American missionaries, were influenced by famous figures such as Darby, Brookes and Scofield, and by several factors such as the first international conference to discuss Bible prophecy (1868), The Niagara Conference (1878-1897), the Student Volunteer Movement (1886-1910), the Moody Bible Institute (1886) and so on. In particular, the Premillennial Dispensationalism that had become the main eschatological theology in the Evangelicalism of the USA in the late 19^th century was deeply related to these conferences.

According to Arthur J. Brown, a director of the North Presbyterian Foreign Mission department, most of the early missionaries to Korea not only had embraced historical premillennialism, Premillennial Dispensationalism and literal interpretation of the Bible but they also considered it a dangerous heresy to accept the so-called higher criticism and liberal theology. ²⁶ They taught this eschatology and a literal method of interpretation of the Bible to the early Korean Christians at Pyongyang Presbyterian Theological Seminary, which was the first seminary in Korea and established in 1901. ²⁷

5. The Origin of the Indifference of Mainline Korean Protestant Churches towards Nature

In the late 19th and early 20th century, Korea faced serious crises internally and externally. Internally, it was the time of the downfall of the Joseon Dynasty. Externally, the Korean peninsula became a battlefield of western military forces, which tried to occupy the land. There were many threats from western forces, such as the forced treaty (27^th February, 1876) establishing a diplomatic relationship between Korea and Japan, the War between Qing (ancient China) and Japan (1894-1895), the collapse of traditional markets in Korea caused by Japanese merchants, and the Japanese annexation of Korea (1910-1945). ²⁸ Interestingly enough, in many cases, and in various nations, Christianity was considered an oppressive foreign colonial power. It was not the case for Korea. The country (Japan) that had plagued Korea was not a nation of Christianity. “During the sufferings of the Korean people they would often turn to the Church as an outlet for their nationalist hopes. They perceived Protestant Christianity as a force that could help Korea.” ²⁹ Moreover, western missionaries to Korea not only contributed to the establishment of the modern medical system but also the modern education system in Korea. ³⁰

Thus, these challenging situations and a significant contribution of American missionaries gave a chance for Protestant Christianity to be accepted in Korea. ³¹ Moreover, it gave a chance for the theology of Christianity to be accepted and to prevail in Korea, especially the eschatology of the so-called “Premillennial Dispensationalism.”

Since western missionaries has contributed to the modernization of the Korea, most Koreans understood that becoming a church member meant the acceptance of advanced technology, civilization and culture, or joining the process of enlightenment. ³² In other words, “the profound social structural developments that characterized the process of economic development provided a cultural opening for the ‘selling’ and ‘reception’ of a Christian worldview that harmonized with the industrial transformation of Korean society.” ³³ This means that the instruction of the early western missionaries to Korea, especially that of American missionaries, may have promoted a spirit of capitalism and modernization.

6. The Influence of the Pyongyang Presbyterian Theological Seminary

In order to find the answer to how Premillennial Dispensationalism settled down as a mainstream eschatology in the early Korean churches, it is necessary to scrutinize the theology of the professors who taught western theology to the early Korean Christians at Pyongyang Presbyterian Theological Seminary, established in 1901. Although they had taught the Bible to the early Korean Christians sporadically from 1889-1900, these professors built a seminary during that time in order to propagate the western theology that they had inherited from their western schools, and in order to create a place where they could train the early Christians in Korea. Most of the lecturers in the seminary had graduated from McCormick Theological Seminary, where Premillennial Dispensationalism was taught. ³⁴ There were fourteen American missionaries who came to Korea in the years from 1888 to 1902. Among them were three missionaries included in the list of lecturers at Pyongyang Theological Seminary: S. A. Moffett, who taught general theology and Church politics; W. L. Swallen, who taught Jewish history and exegesis of Old and New Testament; C. A. Clark, who taught Homiletics; C. F. Bernheisel; and William M. Baird. ³⁵

Many American missionaries to Korea translated or published books which introduced premillennialism, particularly, premillennial dispensationalism such as, Jesus is coming, The Second Advent of Christ, Rightly Dividing the Word of Truth, ³⁶ Dispensational Truth, ³⁷ and so on. Thus, the early Korean Christian leaders accepted their eschatology with a literal method of interpretation and transmitted it to the next Korean Christian generation. For example, Seon-Ju Gil (1869-1935) who was called “the father of the Korean church” definitely believed the rapture of faithful believers (1 Thess. 4:13-18) and the millennial kingdom of Christ before tribulation, as he clearly mentions in the following quote:

When Christ comes back as a groom, though the faithful believers will be caught up in the air in order to meet Christ, those who lack the faith in Christ will be left on the Earth. It is difficult to express how massive the disaster will be for them. This is because not only will it be hard to hear and be inspired by the gospel due to the ascension of the Church (faithful believers) and the Holy Spirit, but Christ will also pour enormous calamity onto the Earth. So, imagine how miserable the world will be. ³⁸

Gil also interpreted the Book of Revelation 6-16 as follows:

If we read and interpret the book of Revelation 6 – 16, we will realize that these chapters refer to the tribulation for seven years. During the seven years tribulation, many eschatological disasters will happen and the current world will be engulfed in darkness. Thus, this world is going to be a scary place. . . The book of Revelation clearly explicitly shows twenty one cosmic and environmental catastrophes. ³⁹

Another influential figure in the history of Korean Protestantism is Ik-Du Kim (1874-1950). Kim believed that the present day was coming to an imminent end and that the second coming of Jesus Christ would happen soon. ⁴⁰ He preferred to preach about Christian eschatology, including the themes of rapture before tribulation (1 Thess. 4:13-18; Rev. 6-16), the second coming of Christ, the Millennium Kingdom and the future life, which encouraged a millennial-centered and other worldly-centered viewpoint. ⁴¹

These illustrate that premillennial dispensationalism deeply influenced the early Korean Christian leaders through the teaching of the western missionaries to Korea. Thus, according to Paul Hang-Sik Cho, the ideas in this eschatology and literal interpretation of the Bible have entered deeply into the Korean religious psyche and maintained this eschatological orientation in Korean Christian society. ⁴²

7. The Central Role of The Key Doctrinal Constructs in Premillennialism

According to N. T. Wright, premillennialism, especially, premillennial dispensationalism has several key doctrines which lead to a negative attitude towards the environment: that the natural world is destined to be totally destroyed by God’s judgment and that devoted believers will be caught up (raptured) in the air from this wicked world in order to be with Christ prior to the great tribulation and then, will return to reign over the world forever. ⁴³

David Horrell points out the key doctrines of premillennial dispensationalism and its negative view towards environment as follows.

History is divided into various phases, or divine dispensations, and will culminate in a great tribulation, a battle between good and evil (Armageddon), and a millennial reign of Christ on the earth. Prior to the tribulation, however, Christians will be raptured from the earth. It has a significant if indirect impact on the environmental agenda to the extent that if fosters a view of natural disasters and signs of earthly decay as indicators of the imminent end which are therefore to be welcomed. It also focuses Christian hope on the rescuing of the elect from a doomed earth rather than say on the liberation and renewal of all creation. Working to preserve the natural environment is not only pointless, it is working against God’s purposes, since the destruction of the physical elements of the cosmos must happen before the End. ⁴⁴

An interesting point is that New Testament eschatology (whether viewed through the lens of historical premillennialism, premillennial dispensationalism or a-millennialism, though not post-millennialism) has in some degree a pessimistic viewpoint in terms of the future of the earth. According to Stephen C. Barton, the majority of not only early Christians but also contemporary Christians in the world believe that New Testament eschatology implies the catastrophic end of the earth or “a certain pessimistic determinism about the likelihood of the end of the world.” ⁴⁵

Thus, the pessimistic fatalism of these doctrines in New Testament eschatology in relation to social problems and the future of human history can make Christians less responsible for social transformation and environmental care.

In effect, the doctrinal constructs, as Conradie labels them, bring certain themes, ideas and biblical texts into central focus and marginalize others, suggesting that New Testament eschatology implies the total destruction of earthly ecosystems and individual salvation before or in the middle the great tribulation by rapture or Christ’s coming directly. Moreover, these doctrinal constructs bring certain biblical texts into clear and central focus, which shapes and focuses the biblical traditions, blurring, distorting, or marginalizing other biblical texts. ⁴⁶

In this regard, the doctrinal constructs central to, historical premillennialism and premillennial dispensationalism, such as the total destruction of the earth brings certain eschatological N.T texts into clear and central focus, such as (Mk 13:24-27; 1Thess 4:13-5:11; Heb 12:25-29; 2Pet 3:1-13; Rev 6:12-27; 8:1-13). These texts are taken to advocate these doctrinal constructs, at the same time, other eschatological N.T texts (such as Mk 1:12-13; Rom 8:19-23; Rev 21:1-7, 22:1-5) which illustrate cosmic renewal or reconciliation of all creation are marginalised. These latter texts might suggest a different perspective from that of the doctrinal constructs of historical premillennialism and premillennial dispensationalism.

Korean Protestants prioritize certain biblical texts which depict catastrophic images, total destruction of ecosystem and rapture such as, 1Thess 4:13-5:11 and Rev 6:12-27 and so on when they think about N.T eschatology. These doctrinal constructs play a crucial role in shaping and maintaining an interpretation and reading tradition of the Bible by continually repeated practices and habituation. This reading tradition also plays a crucial role in the indifference of Korean Protestants towards environment issues.

There is clear evidence that based on the Rapture concept of historical premillennialism and premillennial dispensationalism, especially premillennial dispensationalists have prioritized 1Thess 4:13-5:11 which seems to support such a doctrinal constructs. They have believed that faithful believers will be caught up in the air to meet the descending Christ from heaven before the seven great tribulation. However, a majority of biblical scholars do not interpret it in this sense. Instead, they say that the passage of 1Thess. 4:17 illustrates “an allusion to the way in which a representative group of citizens go halfway when dignitary visits the city and then escorts him back to the city.” ⁴⁷ From this point of view, it is improbable that this permanent union takes place in the air or in heaven. However, Reverend Yongkee Cho who was senior pastor of Yeouido Full Gospel church(mega church) in Seoul, Korea argues differently, based on premillennial dispensationalism, that rapture will happen at the second coming of Christ and then “the Holy Spirit will leave the earth; the world will subsequently stand under judgment and will be destroyed.” ⁴⁸ Seung Gap Lee suggests that “Therefore, the salvation is not salvation of the world and history, but from the world and history.” ⁴⁹

Another key doctrinal construct of historical premillennialism and premillennial dispensationalism is the total destruction of the current world. The biblical texts which depict catastrophic images of the world’s end such as (Mk 13:24-27; Heb 12:25-29; 2 Pet 3:1-13; Rev 6:12-27; 8:1-13) seem to support this idea. Particularly, the Book of Revelation is the eschatological N.T text which Koreans prefer, because many parts of this book have an affinity with the images of cosmic catastrophe and imminent cataclysm. For example, Rev. 6:12-27; 8:1-13 may be taken to depict the catastrophic disaster anticipated in historical premillennialism and premillennial dispensationalism. However, there are various views on what these texts represent. “(1) political upheaval; (2) preliminary eschatological woes; (3) catastrophic events, marking the arrival of climactic judgement, but not the end of the cosmos; (4) catastrophic events that signal or constitute the dissolution of the cosmos.” ⁵⁰

There are two main ways of reading the N.T eschatological texts: non-destructionist interpretation and destructionist interpretation. ⁵¹ Edward Adams and David Aune argue that some NT texts do “have in view the complete destruction of the physical universe.” ⁵² For example, the announcement, ‘I saw a new heaven and a new earth; for the first heaven and the first earth had passed away’ is taken to indicate ‘that an act of cosmic dissolution precedes the appearance of the new heaven and earth.’ ⁵³ On the other hand, Richard Bauckham, N. T Wright, and Greg Beale argue that the same texts have in view “the transformation of the old creation rather than an outright new creation ex nihilo.” ⁵⁴

8. The Trajectories of Biblical Interpretation: Text, Interpretive Tradition and Context

My point is that interpretation of the eschatological N.T texts is heavily influenced by certain doctrinal constructs. If we consider the ecological predicament which all human beings are facing in the world, I believe that it is necessary to develop an ecological hermeneutics which provides new and different ways of reading the biblical texts taking into account the contemporary context and issues. In order to do that, this paper introduces two scholars’ ecological hermeneutics: David G. Horrell and Ernst M. Conradie. The important point of these approaches is that “Interpretation can only take place when some analogies, that is similarities-amidst-differences, are identified, in the case of theological interpretation between the Biblical texts, the Christian tradition and a contemporary context.” ⁵⁵

However, biblical interpretation does not merely reach immediately from the text to the context. The identification of such similarities and differences for biblical interpretation is a time consuming process that needs to take account of the trajectories of the particular biblical interpretative tradition, because the identification of the two factors (similarity and difference) is the product of an extremely complex reciprocal action between the effective history (Wirkungs-geschichte) of the Bible and specific Christian traditions and multiplex constituents in the contemporary context. ⁵⁶ Conradie introduces the notion of a so-called “spiral of interpretation” which describes an act of complex interplay between these three key factors (biblical text, specific Christian tradition of interpretation, and contemporary context) when an interpreter investigates and interprets certain biblical texts (or in biblical interpretation). ⁵⁷

What this suggests is that biblical interpretation is a spiral of ongoing interpretation, not a work to derive only one genuine meaning from a certain text. It is constructive work “shaped and influenced by the text, by the modern context, and by the various traditions of reading and interpreting represented (and beyond) Christian theology.” ⁵⁸ Here, “spiral of interpretation” describes the way in which the meaning, significance, value, use or relevance of biblical texts is appropriated in and for ever-changing contemporary contexts. Thus, if contexts and demands are changed, this shapes a new perspective and viewpoint on biblical texts.

I would like to define this context in a broad sense that all humanity faces in terms of the ecological predicament of the earth: Climate Change, Global warming, and global capitalism. Humanity is living in the Earth no matter where exactly. The environmental crisis is a global issue, not only a Korean issue, that requires people everywhere to consider a response to it and calls responsible Christians to consider how their traditions and scriptures can be re-read in better way.

One of the best ways to do this, I suggest, as Conradie and Horrell propose, is to build or create new doctrinal constructs taking into account the current environmental situation around the world, As shown above in the cases of historical premillennialism and premillennial dispensationalism, such doctrinal constructs play a crucial role in shaping and maintaining an interpretive tradition.

If I borrow Horrell’s phrase, doctrinal constructs form a kind of “two-way lens, which shapes and focuses the biblical traditions . . . and at the same time both reflects and shapes our understanding of, and response to, the contemporary context. ⁵⁹

Many Korean Protestants read and interpret the Bible through the lens of certain doctrinal constructs: total destruction of earth’s ecosystem, rapture, great tribulation at God’s judgment day. However, when we think about current environmental issues, I think we need to focus on other doctrinal constructs to interpret the eschatological vision of the New Testament, like “liberation of creation” or “reconciliation of creation.” Some of the eschatological N.T texts illustrate a renewal of creation.

For example, using the “messianic kingdom” of Isa 11 as the key to understanding Mk 1:12-13, Richard Bauckham claims that this is a picture of reconciliation of the human world with the wild world, healed of the fear and violence that had long been implied by the Noahic covenant. ⁶⁰

With respect to Rev 21:1-7; 22:1-5, Barbara Rossing posits that these textual portraits of the New Jerusalem show us the recovery of ecosystems through God’s action in Christ (the Lamb). ⁶¹ According to Harry O. Maier, these texts portray “a symbiotic relationship of interdependence between Earth and its inhabitants. ⁶²

According to Horrell, Rom 8:19-25 and Col 1:15-20 indicate that God’s saving purposes encompass the whole creation, not just humans. ⁶³ Concerning the environmental situation around world, I think we need to emphasize both such eschatological New Testament texts which illustrate the future hope of the earth and doctrinal constructs like reconciliation of all creation in order to change the indifference of Korean Protestants towards the environment.

9. Conclusion

This paper proposed that the tremendous influence of certain brands of Western theology, historical premillennialism and premillennial dispensationalism, associated with the biblical literalism and dispensationalism which the early western missionaries to Korea taught to the early Korean Protestants, was one of the causes of indifference towards environment.

My conclusion is that the hermeneutical principles or doctrinal lenses of historical premillennialism and premillennial dispensationalism have shaped biblical interpretation among the early Korean Protestant Christians. This interpretive tradition and pre-understanding of N.T eschatological texts permeated deeply into the theological thought and perception of Korean Christians towards nature. Such an abiding tendency of interpretation of the eschatological texts in the N.T shapes Korean Christians’ attitude and indifference towards contemporary environmental issues today. Thus, we need to change both the key doctrinal constructs from the total destruction of earth’s ecosystems to reconciliation of all creation by God’s action in Christ and the central texts from those that seem to highlight earth’s destruction (e.g., Mk 13:24-27; Heb 12:25-29; 2 Pet 3:1-13; Rev 6:12-27; 8:1-13) to those that indicate renewal and reconciliation (e.g., Mk 1:12-13; Rom 8:19-23; and Rev 21:1-7, 22:1-5) in order to reconfigure the tradition in an ecological direction. This proposal will lay the foundation for an ecological interpretive tradition of the Bible not only in the context of the South Korean Church but also in a variety of contexts all over the world.