Positioning Australia’s contemporary health and physical education curriculum to address poor physical activity participation rates by adolescent girls

Abstract

Background:

Given the wealth of research identifying how schools are in a strong position to promote physical activity (PA) among children, it would be reasonable to suggest that initial experiences of physical education and school sport are critical factors influencing whether a student will develop a healthy relationship to PA. However, research in Australia equally identifies how secondary school-aged young people are increasingly failing to meet national guidelines concerning PA levels and participation rates, with adolescent girls displaying the most disturbing trends.

Purpose:

This paper examines how the recent Australian Curriculum Assessment and Reporting Authority (ACARA) Health and Physical Education (HPE) structure aims to address such concerns as poor PA levels and participation rates by adolescent girls.

Methods:

A theoretical approach, consisting of document and literature analysis, was undertaken to develop insights into the current developments surrounding the ACARA HPE implementation, in an attempt to address identified socio-cultural issues within contemporary HPE practices. Such an approach is aimed at heightening effective pedagogy.

Conclusion:

This paper provides a vision for supporting future student inclusion in HPE, by acknowledging potential barriers to the adoption of PA by adolescent girls and identifying strategies that will collectively promote curriculum priorities and classroom practices accordingly.

Keywords

Australian Curriculum Assessment and Reporting Authority curriculum physical activity physical education sports education

Introduction

This paper aims to critically examine the empirical and theoretical bases of claims associated with declining levels of physical activity (PA), such as those exhibited by adolescent girls. It identifies barriers that directly or indirectly contribute to the declining involvement of girls’ in Australia’s physical education (PE) classes and sports more generally. The paper begins by offering an outline of the importance of PA in promoting health. It then describes the steady decline of PA in Australia and barriers to the adoption of PA by adolescent girls. Next, the structure, aims and design of current Australian Curriculum Assessment and Reporting Authority (ACARA) Health and Physical Education (HPE) advice (ACARA, 2015) is discussed, with attention directed towards the analysis offered concerning low PA and sports participation rates by girls. Finally, recommendations are made for future teaching and learning, which offer pointers to the future.

The importance of PA in promoting health

The reported benefits associated with PA include improvements in strength, aerobic fitness and bone density (Tsolakis et al., 2004), with consistent levels of moderate to vigorous PA¹ facilitating ‘better stress management, alleviate depression and anxiety, strengthen self-esteem, enhance mood and boost mental alertness’ (Bauman et al., 2002: 1). Daily moderate to vigorous PA is key to reducing the risk of obesity, type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular disease and building and maintaining a strong musculoskeletal system (Active Healthy Kids Australia, 2014). Telama et al. (2005)’s work has examined the links between childhood and adolescent PA levels and healthy choices and similar choices in adulthood, supporting the importance of fostering positive PA habits among children and adolescents. Involvement in PA has also been linked to psychological benefits, including a more positive sense of self, enhanced body image and social inclusion (ABS, 2013). There is also evidence to suggest regular PA improves psycho-social wellbeing and promotes mental health more generally (ABS, 2013; Steven et al., 2006).

Given the nexus between PA and the promotion of good health, such benefits cannot be understated. A recent estimate puts the cost of physical inactivity to the Australian economy at $13.8 billion/year, as a result of healthcare costs, lost productivity and premature deaths (ABS, 2013).

The steady decline of PA in Australia

Despite comprehensive national health promotion campaigns and policy implementation, Australians of all ages are recorded as being increasingly physically inactive and undertaking lower than the recommended guidelines for daily PA (Active Healthy Kids Australia, 2014). Surprisingly, Australian youth (5–17 years of age) exhibit especially poor PA levels, leading to increasing levels of obesity (Active Healthy Kids Australia, 2014). Some 28% of children are overweight or obese, with rates increasing 2.5 times over two decades (Queensland Government, 2014). Other countries facing similar problems of inactive lifestyles are responding with significant investment in the promotion of physical literacy (PL) in children, using increasingly sophisticated techniques (Fox, 2010). However, Australia has yet to make rigorous and coordinated attempts to do this.

This decline of PA is not an isolated national problem (Active Healthy Kids Australia, 2014; Spinks et al., 2006), but has been recognised as a global phenomenon. International research indicates that 80.3% of young people (aged 5–17 years) perform fewer than 60 minutes per day of moderate to vigorous PA (Pedro et al., 2012). Jenkinson and Benson (2010) maintain that with the combination of a decline in fitness levels in children, inadequate pathways to accessing PA, and increasing prevalence of obesity, there is growing concern for the health of children across the world. Statistics from the Australian Bureau of Statistics (2013) suggest that 64% of people aged 10 years and over (or 11.1 million people) had participated in sport and PA as a player at least once during the 12 months prior to interview; however, participation in sport and PA decreases with age. Previous research has also shown that girls are more inclined to participate in PA for fitness and social purposes as opposed to boys who exhibit greater motives for winning and competition (Department of National Parks, Recreation, Sport and Racing, 2013). Shen et al. (2012) theorise such trends through the application of the theory of planned behaviour (TBA), which has been used in efforts to understand students’ intentions and planned behaviour in school settings. Their research posits that girls’ behaviour-related beliefs in PE and sport are directly associated with their lived experience. Specifically, reluctance for girls to participate fully in PE and sport is largely due to past results from ‘socially institutionalised gender roles that maintain and reproduce boys’ dominance and girls’ subordination in PE’ (Shen et al., 2012, p. 2).

With such evidence at hand, further research is warranted in an attempt to understand ‘barriers’ to PA and sport involvement, with particular attention given to determining how these may be overcome so as to ensure an increase in girls’ participation rates. This is perhaps the initial critical step in developing effective learning experiences and curriculum implementation that will go towards further heightening inclusion and participation rates. Importantly, Keegan et al. (2013) offer a possible suggestion and strategy by stating ‘Australia needs to ensure its citizens are willing and able to be more physically active, and this can start at pre-school and primary school’ (p. 1).

Barriers to the adoption of PA by adolescent girls

While young women in many contexts do achieve national (Australian) PA guidelines, there is considerable evidence suggesting that most do not. The relationship between gender and PA has been widely researched and reported on in the literature (Kirk, 2012). Despite the widely recognised associated benefits of regular PA, declining participation rates by young women in Australia continue to be documented (Kirk, 2012; Whitty, 2000). This trend has been linked to the culture of PE classes for decades (Australian Sports Commission, 1999) with as many as 60% of girls dropping out of organised PE and sport during adolescence (Whitty, 2000). Weis and Williams (2005) provide some insight into the possible reasons for youth disengagement with sport. Key factors include (1) conflicts of interest, (2) negative experiences, (3) lack of fun and (4) conflict with coaches. With respect to declining participation rates among girls in particular, Kirk (2012) highlights the influence of (1) lack of choice, (2) body image issues, (3) a ‘boy-centred’ PE curriculum and (4) changing interests. It has long been observed that fewer adolescent girls participate in regular PA and organised sport compared to boys (Keegan et al., 2013), resulting in poor lifelong PA (LLPA) habits.

Schools are well positioned to support and motivate PA given that children spend on average around 190 days a year at school (Active Healthy Kids Australia, 2014; Parinduri, 2014). Schools hold the potential to reach large numbers of children and adolescents, have trained personnel with an interest in promoting health, have an organisation structure and facilities that can be used to promote PA, and have the capacity to interact with community-based PA providers and other community groups (Spinks et al., 2006). To be effective, programmes that prepare children for LLPA should be formally organised, well designed and professionally led (Keegan et al., 2013).

Despite these advantages, there exist a number of barriers to the implementation and sustainability of regular PE and PA for adolescents. These barriers, both institutional and teacher-related, have been outlined by Jenkinson and Benson (2010) (Table 1).

Table 1.

Barriers to the adoption of physical activity in schools.

Barrier	Primary schools	Secondary schools
Institutional	Access to and lack of facilities Lack of time Crowded curriculum Funding Access to and lack of equipment Support from other staff Support from administration Access to professional development PE/sport not priority in school Large class sizes Budget constraints Insufficient infrastructure Other teaching priorities Quality of facilities Level of professional development School executive attitudes towards PE Insufficient number of PE staff Lack of performance measures for PE	Access to and lack of facilities Lack of time Restricted curriculum Funding Ethos of PA for life within the school Socioeconomic status of school Timetabling
Teacher-related	Lack of training and knowledge Difficultly providing safely planned and structured lessons Gender stereotyping of activities Poor planning Perceptions of the value of PE Interest in/enthusiasm for PE Personal school experiences in PE Attitudes towards PE Expertise/qualifications	Colleagues undervaluing activities Ethos of performance/elitism of PE department or school as a whole

Source: Jenkinson and Benson (2010).

PA: physical activity; PE: physical education.

More specifically with respect to girls’ and young women’s participation, Usher and Anderton (2014) identify a number of barriers, both actual and perceived. These include (1) curriculum content, (2) school priorities, (3) social environment, (4) structure of the classroom, (5) body image factors and (6) PL (in particular competency in fundamental motor skills). Failure to recognise these barriers may explain why so many initiatives in the past have proved ineffective in bringing about real and sustainable change in PA participation among girls (Kirk, 2012).

ACARA HPE: structure, aims and design

Structure

In May 2009, steps were taken to develop the first Australia-wide curriculum in the form of the Australian Curriculum. An Advisory Board was given responsibility for developing a document, which states and territories might then use to develop local syllabuses and support and assessment materials. A wide consultation process, involving Australia’s Education Council was undertaken, with the findings used to determine a structure for The Australian Curriculum, Assessment and Reporting Authority (ACARA’s) eight key learning areas – HPE, being one of these. Underpinning the ACARA HPE structure are five key characteristics: (1) a critical inquiry approach, (2) a strengths-based approach, (3) a concern to value movement, (4) a concern to develop health literacy and (5) a focus on educative purposes (Figure 1). Importantly, the ACARA HPE structure includes reference to a range of activities and topics to promote inclusivity and to support motivation for involvement in PE. The pedagogical stance underpinning the structure is one that promotes the use of a (socio)critical pedagogy to question assumptions and power inequalities and examine social relations from an encompassing perspective (Leahy et al., 2013).

Figure 1.

ACARA: Health and Physical Education structure.

Aims

In formal terms, the Australian Curriculum: HPE (F-10) aims to develop knowledge, understanding and skills to enable students to

Access, evaluate and synthesise information to take positive action to protect, enhance and advocate for their own and others’ health, wellbeing, safety and PA participation across their lifespan;

Develop and use personal, behavioural, social and cognitive skills and strategies to promote a sense of personal identity and wellbeing and to build and manage respectful relationships;

Acquire, apply and evaluate movement skills, concepts and strategies to respond confidently, competently and creatively in a variety of PA contexts and settings;

Engage in and enjoy regular movement-based learning experiences and understand and appreciate their significance to personal, social, cultural, environmental and health practices and outcomes;

analyse how varied and changing personal and contextual factors shape understanding of, and opportunities for, health and PA locally, regionally and globally.

Design

The ACARA HPE structure was designed to promote experiential learning through relevant, engaging, contemporary, physically active, enjoyable and developmentally appropriate activities. Its principal author, MacDonald (2013) identifies ‘the key propositions for a “futures-oriented” curriculum’ suggesting that HPE should take a ‘strengths-based approach; focus on educative outcomes; develop health literacy skills; value learning in, about and through movement; and adopt an inquiry-based approach’ (p. 1).

The ACARA structure advocates for the acquisition of movement skills, concepts and strategies that enable students to confidently and competently participate in a range of PAs. In HPE classes, students should develop the knowledge, understanding and skills to support resilience, to develop a strong sense of self, to build and maintain satisfying relationships, to make health-enhancing decisions in relation to health and PA participation, and to develop health literacy competencies in order to enhance their own and others’ health and wellbeing.

Each of these key design components of the ACARA HPE structure is linked throughout the learning continuum by two strands and six sub-strands (and threads) of work (Table 2). Other design components consist of 12 focus areas (Table 3), which have specific reference points for each year level, identified as being: Foundational – Year 2, Years 3–6 and Years 7–10. General advice on the appropriate timing for addressing each focus area is provided. Planning decisions should take into account local needs, available resources, students’ readiness and community priorities (ACARA, 2015).

Table 2.

Key design components of ACARA HPE – strands and sub-strands across the learning continuum.

	Two strands
	Personal, social and community health	Movement and physical activity
Six sub-strands (and threads)	Being healthy, safe and active Identities Changes and transitions Help-seeking Making healthy and safe choices Communicating and interacting for health and wellbeing Interacting with others Understanding emotions Health literacy Contributing to healthy and active communities Community health promotion Connecting to the environment Valuing diversity	Moving our body Refining movement skills Developing movement concepts and strategies Understanding movement Fitness and physical activity Elements of movement Cultural significance of physical activity Learning through movement Teamwork and leadership Critical and creative thinking in movement Ethical behaviour in movement settings

Source: ACARA (2015).

Table 3.

Key design components of ACARA HPE – focus areas across learning continuum.

Focus areas	Foundation – Year 2	Years 3–6	Years 7–10
Alcohol and other drugs (AD)	✓ Medicines only	✓	✓
Food and nutrition (FN)	✓	✓	✓
Health benefits of physical activity (HBPA)	✓	✓	✓
Mental health and wellbeing (MH)	✓	✓	✓
Relationships and sexuality (RS)	✓ Relationships only	✓	✓
Safety (S)	✓	✓	✓
Active play and minor games (AP)	✓	✓	N/A
Challenge and adventure activities (CA)	N/A	✓	✓
Fundamental movement skills (FMS)	✓	✓	N/A
Games and sports (GS)	N/A	✓	✓
Lifelong physical activities (LLPA)	N/A	✓	✓
Rhythmic and expressive activities (RE)	✓	✓	✓

Source: ACARA (2015).

Addressing low PA trends and participation rates by girls

Historical and contemporary findings pertaining to poor participation rates by girls underscore the need for concerted efforts to promote policies, strategies and curriculum that heighten school-age young women’s participation in PA, PE and sport. The co-educational setting existent in many school settings has been shown to limit girls’ participation in PE (Kirk, 2012). It has been suggested, for example, that boys frequently receive priority in PE lessons as a result of an undue focus on boy-centred games (such as) from which many girls are excluded (Whitty, 2000). Some 15 years ago, the Australian Sports Commission (1991) found that girls were presented with fewer opportunities for sports involvement, were provided with less activity space, equipment and facilities, and had restricted access to sport compared with boys. A similar situation prevails in many schools today.

Research suggests that the physical changes associated with adolescence can enhance bodily dissatisfaction affecting the participation of some adolescent girls in PE (O’Dea and Caputi, 2001; Symons et al., 2013). Young women describe their experiences of PE as accompanied by feelings of embarrassment, discomfort and self-consciousness with respect to physical incompetence and body weight (Coakley and White, 1992). Young women have also been reported as less likely to participate in particular activities such as swimming due to dress requirements (Malaxos and Wedgewood cited in Whitty, 2000). Avoidance of participation is one strategy adopted by many girls as a way of avoiding bodily exposure and possible feelings of embarrassment and self-consciousness. The term ‘girl friendly physical education’ was introduced by Felton et al. (2005) and incorporates (1) students being physically active in class, (2) the provision of a range of non-competitive activities, (3) opportunities for gender separate activities, (4) an emphasis on lifelong activity, (5) a stress of classes being enjoyable and fun, (6) the greater use of small group work and (7) the inclusion of behavioural skills for PE. Some of these features do not apply only to female students and may be effective teaching strategies to improve learning on a class-wide basis.

The current ACARA HPE structure has been designed to contribute to this identified need by addressing the implementation of school PE and sport so as to close the gap between educational reality and rhetoric for girls. While ACARA can do little in regard to class composition and structure, its recommendations promote a diverse, enriching education curriculum, embedded with opportunities for the inclusion for all students. From the Foundation year onwards, movement content descriptors focus on the ‘development and practice of fundamental movement skills’ (ACARA, 2015). The practice of fundamental movement skills (FMS) progresses with increasing difficulty through to the completion of Years 5 and 6, whereupon students begin to acquire specialised movement skills. Through the emphasis placed on the development of FMS in the curriculum, children will be better positioned to become more confident in developing the physical competence required for successful participation and inclusivity in PA, positively linked to increased participation rates. This may be especially evident among adolescent girls who often lack the FMS required for progression to the more specialised movement skills required in the later years of the curriculum.

The ACARA HPE structure offers a wide variety of PAs and sports which move away from the traditionally competitive, male-dominated sports curricula of the past. From Year 7 to Year 10, importance is given not only on the enhancement of skills and skill-related fitness, but also to health-related fitness components alongside the development and implementation of personalised fitness plans (ACARA, 2015). As previously discussed, adolescent girls have been found to be more motivated to participate in PA for fitness purposes rather than competition. By incorporating health-related topics into the curriculum, young women may become more inclined to participate. The ACARA HPE structure includes focus areas such as rhythmic and expressive (RE) movement activities, challenge and adventure (CA) activities, LLPAs as well as games and sports (GS), allowing for the inclusion of a recreational and non-traditional approach to PE. This structure and design aims to increase participation by providing access to the kind of PAs often preferred by girls.

Throughout the ACARA HPE structure, there is a stress on cooperation, collaboration and inclusion. Specifically, cooperation with others when participating in PA appears at the Foundation level, while adopting inclusive practices, modifying rules and scoring systems to allow for inclusive participation is reinforced in Years 3–9 (ACARA, 2015). In Years 7–10, attention is given to developing collaborative skills by working in teams (ACARA, 2015). These content descriptors aim to provide opportunities for the greater inclusion of girls in HPE. By adopting these strategies and rethinking the delivery of school-based PE and sport, girls should feel less intimidated by male students (and staff) and be provided with equal opportunities for participation and involvement.

Implications for teachers

Just as critical as the ACARA HPE structure for promoting the inclusion of girls in PE, is the implementation of effective teaching strategies. Teachers should utilise pedagogical practices that recognise the importance of health, fun, enjoyment and social interaction, while allowing opportunities for successful participation and achievement regardless of skill levels. External rewards should not be solely focused on winning, but should celebrate other forms of achievement such as effort, increased participation, the attainment of personal goals and the demonstration of positive values and attributes. Roberts (2011) suggests that Australian PE has traditionally over-rewarded those students who enter PE lessons with existing skills and athletic competencies while isolating and marginalising students who are not so highly skilled. Sufficient time on task needs to be invested into the development of FMS from an early age to ensure the development of individual PL skills and to promote the greater inclusion of girls during adolescence. PL as defined here is a multifaceted concept which includes ‘the motivation, confidence, physical competence, understanding and knowledge that individuals develop in order to maintain physical activity at an individually appropriate level throughout life’ (Whitehead, 2010: 11).

Importantly, being physically literate has been viewed as a predictor of time spent in organised PA by adolescent girls (Okely et al., 2001). The association between childhood object control proficiency and adolescent time spent in organised PA increases if a student is deemed to be PL (Barnett et al., 2009). PL lies at the foundation of physical skills that children need to possess or develop in order to receive the benefits of taking part in PA and sport for lifelong enjoyment and success (Keegan et al., 2013). The implementation of well-structured PE classes can promote many of the foundational skills necessary for developing PL in children. As Barnett (2009) remarks, ‘Motor skill development should be a key strategy in childhood interventions aiming to promote long-term physical activity’ (p. 1).

Currently in Australia, however, PL and its role in PA, is in a state of decline, with many stakeholders, who confess to be advocates of PE, not promoting the components that make for a physically active and literate student. Keegan et al. (2013) highlight an increasing gap in Australia when it comes to designing programmes that reflect the full range of PL components, reinforcing earlier findings that a high proportion of children could not display levels of proficiency for each of the FMS (run, vertical jump, catch, strike, kick and overhand throw) (Booth et al., 1997). Given such evidence, learning and teaching experiences need to be designed so as to ensure that students in the Foundation years consolidate each of the identified ACARA FMS, or PL levels. This can be achieved by approaching the curriculum ‘flexibly’ and by including an array of PAs and sports likely to engage all students at all levels. One possible strategy for increasing participation and inclusion could be to conduct a girls’ survey to identify their PA and sporting interests, which in itself may lead to increased motivation and participation. Wang and Lui (2007) suggest that more flexible curriculum and lesson implementation, which develops relationships between achievement goals, ability beliefs, self-determination and enjoyment of PE, will also increase participation rates. If high levels of personal autonomy and perceived competence can be achieved in lessons, an increase in enjoyment will drive positive levels of motivation (Wang and Lui, 2007).

One teaching and learning strategy in PE that could help foster increased student interest, cooperation, encouragement and collaboration is the implementation of the ‘teaching games for understanding’ (TGfU) teaching model. McKeen et al. (2007) conducted a study on the effectiveness of TGfU with secondary school students and pre-service PE teachers and found that levels of student interest and enjoyment were higher using the TGfU approach compared to more traditional techniques. One of the priorities stressed by the ACARA HPE structure is valuing movement. Research has shown that TGfU results in improved FMS for students, and students who are competent in FMS are more likely to develop a lifelong commitment to PA (Martin and Gaskin, 2004). Another aim of the ACARA HPE structure is for students to acquire, apply and evaluate movement skills, concepts and strategies to respond confidently, competently and creatively in a variety of PA contexts and settings. TGfU has also been shown to support students in this area, with research by Martin and Gaskin (2004) showing that as a result of participation in TGfU, students become more tactically aware and better decision-makers. The TGfU model can be applied to four types of games – target games, net/wall games, striking/fielding games and invasion games. Stolz and Pill (2014) believe all the games in each category have similar concepts and similar problems to be solved, allowing for the transfer of tactical understanding across games. Hence, students who become better decision-makers can apply their knowledge, allowing them to respond competently and confidently across a variety of sports.

Initiatives to improve school-based PE, PA and sports participation rates

The Australian government’s growing concern about childhood physical inactivity and poor sports involvement levels, coupled with growing rates of obesity, have helped create greater interest and discourse around PE, PA and sport and its contribution to children’s health (Dwyer et al., 2003). In response to such concerns and the identified link between PA, general health and academic performance (Jenkinson and Benson, 2010), the Australian and Queensland Governments are attempting to make good quality mandatory daily PA (30 minutes) a priority in government schools, giving school-aged students more opportunities to be physically active. Past attempts to mandate PA in schools were disjointed with no nationwide policy related to PA and sport, resulting in individual states and territory having their own policies and baseline requirements (Jenkinson and Benson, 2010). The problem was compounded by the fact that ‘Early years PE is often delivered by teachers with limited training in PE and sport; limited access to trained PE and sporting professionals, and severe constraints on time and resources’ (Keegan et al., 2013: 1).

An increasingly crowded curriculum raises questions as to whether generalist teachers, if given the opportunities, can implement the mandatory 30 minutes of PA every day while achieving other ACARA subject requirements. The difficulties of achieving a mandatory minimal requirement have been well described, with time constraints in primary state schools in particular leading to PE classes often being omitted to make way for other subjects (Decorby et al., 2005). One specific example is provided by the Australian Capital Territory curriculum, which stipulates 150 minutes per week of PE to be provided, yet reviews indicate, that on average, just over 30 minutes of PE per school week is taught by classroom teachers. In consequence, the quality of children’s early experiences in PE, PA and sport can be highly variable. If children’s early experiences of being physically active fail to be enjoyable and build basic movement capacities, they will be less likely to try, enjoy and succeed in future physical challenges (Keegan et al., 2013).

Against this background, a recent Ministerial Review Committee of School Sport and Physical Activity (MRSSPA, 2007) in Queensland has examined a variety of issues, including (1) participation rates in sports and PA, (2) types of activities and sports undertaken, (3) potential barriers that could prevent students from participating in school sport and PA, (4) community involvement in the delivery of school sport and PA in schools and (5) examples of good models in the delivery of school sport and PA. From such a review, a Queensland Government’s (2007) PA and sports policy was developed with the aim of enhancing the health and wellbeing of all Queensland students. In July 2007, the Queensland Government (2007) launched the ‘Smart Moves’ programme in partnership with the Department of Education and Training, Queensland Health, and the Department of Local Government, Sport and Recreation. By implementing the programme in state schools, the state government aimed to ‘increase the curriculum time in which students are effectively engaged in physical activity and improve the quality of that activity’ (p. 3).

A more recent (2015) Australia-wide government initiative was the development and implementation of the Sporting Schools initiative, with the aim of becoming Australia’s largest programme for all children to foster a lifelong interest in PA and sport. Its main objective is to fund sports activities in more than 5,700 schools and provide access to a range of trained community coaches. With a $100 million investment from the Australian Government, Sporting Schools will draw on the successful elements of the Australia’s Sporting Commission’s Active After-school Communities (AASC) programme, which ended its work on 31 December 2014. However, while such PA programmes have been implemented nationally and regionally, there is still limited empirical data measuring how successful such initiatives have/will be in addressing the decline in PA and sporting participation. What is more, unless a school-based approach is maintained and implemented which caters to girls’ PA and sporting interests and abilities, such initiatives may prove ineffectual in addressing the declining nature of girls’ participation rates.

In response, Usher and Anderton (2014) offer a possible model that may go some way towards ensuring future school-based PA and sports initiatives are sustainable and far reaching. In their eyes, priority should be directed towards promoting a ‘whole school approach’ to promoting PA and meeting national guidelines to facilitate and sustain lifelong learning. Through their work, Usher and Anderton (2014) have developed a best practice model for the implementation of PA programmes in Australian State Primary Schools (Figure 2). The model highlights some of the perceived barriers, enablers and solutions, influencing the implementation of PA and sport from a ‘whole school approach’ and would be applicable in heightening girls’ participation rates.

Figure 2.

Best practice implementation model.

Adolescent girls seem likely to continue to have lower PA and sports participation rates, compared to their counterparts if the identified barriers and issues in this paper are not adequately addressed. Addressing such concerns, from an educational standpoint, is the ACARA HPE structure, which identifies numerous opportunities for heightening inclusion and participation by girls in HPE classes and school sports. However, positive and sustainable school-wide results will only be achieved through the use of effective pedagogical practices and strategies. If teachers can recognise and understand the barriers adolescent girls face, as well as young women’s perceptions with respect to PA, PE and sports participation, their pedagogical practices are more likely to support a change in the current landscape. The adoption and implementation of the contemporary ACARA HPE structure, aims and design offer a positive starting point in this respect, with many stakeholders optimistic as to its future positive impact in improving poor PA and sports participation rates by adolescent girls.

Footnotes

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship and/or publication of this article.

Notes

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