‘You should tell somebody’: An evaluation of a survivor stories blog project to motivate sexual assault victims

Abstract

Objective:

Sexual assault victims often do not disclose their assaults or seek positive health outcomes. The RAINN Survivor Stories project shares testimonials in the form of online blogs from sexual assault survivors to motivate and encourage others to come forward and disclose their assaults. This study aimed to better understand the themes present in the survivor stories to motivate victims to disclose their assaults and seek positive health outcomes.

Design:

A theoretical thematic analysis was conducted on blog posts created for the project to identify (a) how the posts tell survivor stories and (b) how the posts model positive health outcomes using social cognitive theory and the disclosure processes model as a guide.

Setting:

Online setting linked to the rainn.org website.

Method:

Blog posts were collected for inductive thematic analysis. Themes were identified based on their prevalence in the data and their pertinence to the research questions.

Results:

Emerging themes included (a) overcoming initial disclosure, (b) overcoming the lasting effects of victimisation, (c) utilising support and (d) advocating for others after assault.

Conclusion:

Findings offer insight to researchers and practitioners creating media messages for sexual assault victims and other stigmatised groups by expanding understanding of modelled positive health outcomes in media and the disclosure process of victims.

Keywords

Blogs disclosure health promotion media prevention sexual assault

One in five women in the USA report having been raped (Smith et al., 2018), and almost 80% of female victims report that they were first raped before the age of 25 (Black et al., 2011). Men also experience sexual violence, with one in five men reporting that they have experienced unwanted sexual contact during their lifetime (Smith et al., 2018). These statistics only tell part of the story; due to stigma, many victims do not disclose their sexual assaults (Black et al., 2011). If individuals do not feel as though they can come forward to disclose information about their sexual assaults, then they may miss out on receiving mental and physical health care.

In 2016, the Rape, Abuse and Incest National Network (RAINN) launched a national blog campaign to encourage individuals affected by sexual assault to call the hotline or reach out to others for support, and work has continued on the project today (RAINN, 2016). Before researchers and practitioners can create successful media campaigns and projects that encourage disclosure and model positive health behaviours for sexual assault victims, it is important to understand the themes found in media content available to victims through the Internet. In this study, theoretical thematic analysis was used to analyse the themes in publicly available blog posts written for sexual assault victims informed by Bandura’s (2001b) social cognitive theory and Chaudoir and Fisher’s (2010) disclosure processes model (Braun and Clarke, 2006). Emerging themes were identified in 46 blog posts based on their importance and application to an understanding of positive health behaviour and disclosure among individuals living with stigmatised identities. Study findings contribute to discussion of how media messages can be crafted by researchers and practitioners to better reach stigmatised populations with concealable identities.

Sexual assault and health

Sexual assault is a vastly underreported crime. Approximately five out of six rape victims in the USA did not report their assault to the police (Wolitzky-Taylor et al., 2011). In addition, victim service agencies in the USA such as rape crisis centres only reach and support approximately one in four sexual assault victims (Planty et al., 2013).

It is unclear how many sexual assault victims are living in secret, as sexual assault is often underreported due to stigma (Fisher et al., 2003; Wolitzky-Taylor et al., 2011). When a person is sexually assaulted, he or she may be forced to assume a stigmatised hidden identity, and this stigma can influence interpersonal relationships and self-identity, leading to potential further revictimisation and negative health outcomes (Chaudoir and Fisher, 2010; Miller et al., 2011; Quinn and Chaudoir, 2015). Perceived stigma, or self-stigma, is a significant predictor of negative mental health outcomes in sexual assault victims compared to cultural stereotypes and public stigma (Dietz et al., 2015). When sexual assault victims view themselves as not normal and lose their sense of self-worth, this can lead to worse psychological well-being (Dietz et al., 2015; Huemmer et al., 2019). Sexual assault victims may experience unwanted pregnancy, sexually transmitted infections, post-traumatic stress disorder, depression and anxiety (World Health Organization, 2003). If unaddressed, these physical and mental health issues may lead to high-risk behaviour including drug and alcohol use (World Health Organization, 2003).

Disclosure, the act of sharing information with others, is a crucial first step for individuals, including sexual assault victims, to begin the journey to recovery (Chaudoir and Fisher, 2010). When victims receive a negative response to their disclosure, they can experience negative health outcomes and cease to talk about their sexual assault (Ahrens et al., 2010; Campbell et al., 2001). Other barriers to disclosure include wanting to keep the incident secret, not having proof of the event, fearing retribution, anticipating negative responses from police, preferring to handle the matter privately, minimising the event, protecting the perpetrator and feeling uncertain whether the incident was a crime (Alaggia and Wang, 2020; Fisher et al., 2000; Sable et al., 2006). Survivors in the USA who were interviewed about their experiences said they were blamed for allowing themselves to be victimised, denied sympathy or compassion, refused help, or assisted by someone in an ineffective way after they disclosed their assaults to others (Ahrens, 2006). These negative reactions can prevent future disclosure, as victims lose faith in their ability to seek support or resources through disclosing (Ahrens, 2006). Victims who do not disclose their assault(s) are more likely than disclosers to report mental health issues like depression and post-traumatic stress disorder (Ahrens et al., 2010).

When victims receive a positive response to their disclosure, they may find others who have similar experiences, and they may provide representation and awareness for others like them (Chaudoir and Fisher, 2010). These new social networks can be beneficial to helping sexual assault victims recover and find new supportive relationships (Chaudoir and Fisher, 2010; Dietz et al., 2015). Victims have described positive disclosure experiences as helping them feel supported, comforted and confirmed in their understanding that what happened to them was wrong (Ahrens et al., 2007).

The disclosure of health information online can be an effective tool for health practitioners to promote positive health behaviours (Alaggia and Wang, 2020; Pavelko et al., 2017). The #metoo movement has highlighted how viewing disclosures online can encourage individuals to disclose themselves, including when individuals experience barriers to disclosure (Alaggia and Wang, 2020). In addition, disclosures online can help individuals make sense of and seek out more information about their situations (Alaggia and Wang, 2020; Pavelko et al., 2017). An analysis of social media comments following Hugh Jackman’s cancer diagnosis in 2013 revealed that individuals who read Jackman’s disclosure online also commented that they might be more receptive to viewing more health messages and learning more information about cancer (Pavelko et al., 2017). Similarly, comments sections in social media posts that contain disclosures of sexual abuse may prompt others to share messages of offered social support and reciprocal disclosure, especially if the original discloser requested support in his or her initial post (Andalibi et al., 2018). Social media campaigns such as those associated with the #metoo movement or mental health outreach groups can lessen perceptions of stigma for individuals by providing observations of others disclosing their sexual abuse or mental health concerns (Andalibi et al., 2018; Smith-Frigerio, 2020).

Blogs, especially blogs that share personal and emotional narratives, can also be a useful avenue for disseminating persuasive health messages (Neubaum and Krämer, 2015). One study found that individuals exposed to a blog with person-centred narratives about HIV were more likely to view condom use positively compared to individuals who were exposed to a blog that did not contain person-centred narratives (Neubaum and Krämer, 2015). In another study, blog posts containing a narrative about skin cancer led to increased narrative transportation and increased positive behavioral intentions for readers compared to a non-narrative blog post (Stavrositu and Kim, 2015).

Theoretical framework

Chaudoir and Fisher’s (2010) disclosure processes model describes the steps that are made by individuals living with concealable stigmatised identities when they decide to disclose information about their identity to another person. Even though the signs of victimisation are often concealed, the anticipated negative responses from others can be barriers to disclosure and cause stress, impacting overall well-being (Quinn and Chaudoir, 2015). During a disclosure event, the response of the person who is receiving the information is important in encouraging future disclosure (Chaudoir and Fisher, 2010). Disclosure is important for individuals with concealable stigmatised identities, including the victims of sexual assault, because by disclosing they can access support and information that they would not otherwise have (Chaudoir and Fisher, 2010).

Media messages can provide useful models of positive health behaviour, like disclosure, for sexual assault victims by modelling positive outcomes and promoting self-efficacy (Bandura, 2001b, 2004). Bandura’s (2001b) social cognitive theory describes how media creates a symbolic environment that shapes thoughts, behaviours and attitudes. Media can influence health behaviours by modelling effective health practices so individuals feel they can control their own outcomes (Bandura, 2004). Through media, individuals can learn about positive health practices, see the practice in action, see the result and feel more confident that they themselves can demonstrate the same behaviour (Bandura, 2004).

Self-efficacy refers to individuals’ perceptions of their confidence in their own abilities to execute a behaviour (Bandura, 1982). Bandura (2001a) describes imposed environments as contexts where individuals have little agency in controlling environmental factors. When individuals experience sexual assault, they are forced into an environment where they must make sense of their new stigmatised identity and cope with trauma. Nevertheless, individuals have some agency to seek outcomes for themselves in any environment (Bandura, 2001a). Media with salient self-efficacious messages could serve an important role in encouraging victims to see themselves as beings with agency who can take action to better themselves. When individuals feel self-efficacious, they set more lofty but attainable goals for themselves and change their perceptions of the outcomes they expect from certain health behaviours (Bandura, 2004). Research has found that messages that encourage self-efficacy can affect individuals’ perceived self-efficacy (Brown et al., 1997; Keller, 2006).

Informed by these theoretical approaches, this study analysed the RAINN Survivor Stories project guided by the following research questions: RQ1: (How) do the blog posts discuss the experiences of sexual assault victims; and RQ2: (How) do the blog posts include messages aimed to encourage sexual assault victims to disclose their assault(s) and seek positive health behaviours?

Method

Data

The data analysed consisted of text-based blog posts (n = 46) written for the RAINN Survivor Stories project which are publicly available and highly visible on the project website.

In each blog post, a survivor of sexual assault or domestic abuse tells her or his story and offers encouragement to others who are considering disclosing their sexual assault. Out of the 46 blog posts analysed, 8 of the blog posts featured the narratives of men. Blog posts had an average word count of 843 words and were written in a feature writing-type style with quotes from the survivors weaved through the recounting of the survivors’ stories. Although the blog posts do not disclose the date published, the blogs were likely posted between the inception of the campaign in 2016 and the time of data collection in late 2019. Links to a national hotline for victims of sexual assault and other resources are embedded throughout the posts.

Data analysis

Theoretical thematic analysis was conducted on the 46 blog posts created for the RAINN Survivor Stories project. After I familiarised myself with the dataset and coded the data, I identified emergent themes by the prevalence of codes in the dataset and the relevance of the theme to the research questions (Braun and Clarke, 2006). From there, I reviewed and refined the themes to create a thematic map of the data, selecting exemplars that best illustrate the theme (Braun and Clarke, 2006).

Findings

The intent of the blog posts, to motivate victims to disclose their sexual assault(s) and seek positive health outcomes, seems ever-present in the Survivor Stories project. The following four themes emerged in relation to how the blog posts told the stories of victims and encouraged positve health behavior: (a) overcoming the initial disclosure, (b) overcoming the lasting effects of victimisation, (c) utilising support systems and (d) advocating after assault.

Overcoming the initial disclosure

Survivors were often anxious about their initial disclosure to family and friends because they felt they would not be believed. For example, Julianna kept her abuse a secret ‘fearing that she would upset her mother who was so happy to be married to her new husband’. When Julianna finally disclosed to her mother that her stepfather had abused her, her mother did not believe her. Similarly, Carolyn described feeling anxious about disclosing to her Hispanic family because sexual assault is ‘something you do not talk about’. She said: ‘I was really nervous to tell my parents because I didn’t know what they would think of me. I was scared they wouldn’t believe me and would think I was lying’. Both Julianna and Carolyn disclosed to their family despite these barriers. Carolyn said:

I want people to know that even if it feels like the end and you don’t want to deal with it anymore, even if you feel like you don’t deserve anything in life – you aren’t going to feel like this forever. It will pass.

Cultural understandings and family relationships are just some of the factors contributing to a victim feeling as if he or she will not be believed. The ‘burden of proof’ surrounding sexual assault, according to Tara, creates a ‘your word vs the other person’s word’ type of situation. She added:

You just think, why should I say anything because no one is going to believe me, I’m wasting my time . . . You want to say something, but worry that when you do, it could come back worse. I think that’s why a lot of people don’t report.

Despite this, Tara shared that it is important to talk about the experience with others, and she participated in a photoshoot for victims, stating: ‘I ended up doing it just to show my own self that no matter what happened in the past, you can overcome it’.

Male survivors seemed to be strongly concerned about not being believed due to norms around masculinity. Adam did not tell anyone about his assault for 10 years because he feared he would not be believed, saying: ‘I think there’s a stigma attached to that, “Oh, you’re a man, you should have been able to fend him off”’. Another male survivor, Scott, added that in addition to not being believed, he was threatened by his abuser. Support from family, friends and counsellors was helpful to both Adam and Scott following their disclosure. Scott shared: ‘My guidance counsellor through high school looked out for me and understood my struggle’.

The fear of losing control or being defined by the experience seemed to be significant barriers for some survivors. Jeanette ‘didn’t want to feel like a victim or let anything get in the way of her goals’. She was able to gain back some of her control through running: ‘Running became a day-by-day healing process for me’. Like Jeanette, Hannah described not wanting ‘this experience to define me’, and finally disclosed to her parents that she had been assaulted after 7 years due to the strain it placed on her relationship with her parents.

Overcoming the lasting effects of victimisation

The journey after victimisation is burdened with hardship, including physical and mental health issues and relational issues with family and friends. Almost all blog posts mentioned physical and mental health problems experienced after an assault in some way. Common mental health issues referenced by blog posts included anxiety, depression, post-traumatic stress disorder and panic attacks. At first, Cheryl did not understand her mental illness symptoms:

It was impacting my day-to-day life so significantly, and I didn’t understand why. I didn’t understand the connection. I had a happy life. I was married with kids, a house, and a job . . . and I was still having panic attacks.

Tasha also experienced mental health problems following her abuse, including feeling anxious when friends did not respect her boundaries:

It makes me anxious because it reminds me of the assault – of my ‘no’ being ignored. I just take a breath, gather my thoughts, and explain to that person why what they did was particularly difficult for me.

Both Cheryl and Tasha found support for their mental illness through therapy or counselling to recognise symptoms and triggers. Tasha described how, at first, she did not want to attend support groups or go to counselling, but later, she found it helpful to talk to others.

Physical health issues mentioned throughout the blog posts included many physical symptoms of mental illness, such as losing or gaining weight, losing sleep, binge-drinking and cutting or other self-harming behaviours. Tiffany’s mental state following her abuse caused noticeable physical symptoms, including sudden weight loss and a decline in her skating ability: ‘I would come home from practice and turn off the lights and sleep until dinner. I felt depressed. I felt terrible’. Similarly, Katie developed an eating disorder after her assault that caused her to lose ‘half of my body weight in nine months’. She said: ‘People think it is about being pretty. It wasn’t about wanting to be attractive, it was about destroying myself. It was about wanting to die’.

Together, the stories told by survivors featured in this project suggested the gravity of their victimisation. Although survivors do not choose to experience the physical and mental health issues that followed their assault, they have still had to confront these issues and seemed confident in their ability to forge a new path and create a new normal for themselves.

Utilising support systems

Access to social support including friends and family, and access to professional help for mental illness, seem key to helping survivors overcome obstacles. Many talked highly of the people who supported them first and encouraged them in the early stages of their recovery. Lea described the importance of finding social support:

There is absolutely nothing as helpful as a good network of friends. Friends, in particular, who understand and respect your lived experiences and can offer compassion and perspective – without judgement.

Leilani’s Indigenous culture helped guide her through her recovery process, including finding social support. She shared:

In Pasifika culture there is a concept called talanoa, which means binding together through sharing. It’s a practice of finding language to describe your experiences and reconnecting to your community. This practice was integral to my healing: it showed me that I was capable of shaping my own narrative and identity. I am an active participant in my own story.

Johnathon’s initial disclosure that he had been assaulted was not a positive experience and caused him to keep the assault a secret until he became sick with a sexually transmitted infection because of the assault. A female roommate was there to help him. Johnathan said: ‘She was the supportive person I needed. She was the angel who helped me begin my recovery’. Adam had a similar experience to Johnathan; he was afraid that he would not be believed or that his disclosure of sexual abuse would cause harm, but when he finally disclosed to his family, he was supported ‘unconditionally’. Adam said: ‘It is important to have a supportive group of friends and family to be your rock. I think it worked for me because I was able to talk about the abuse to a supportive group of people’.

Professional help for mental illness such as counselling or therapy was seen as an important aspect of healing. Almost every blog post in the project referenced some form of professional help as a part of the survivor’s recovery process. Marissa explained how her experiences with her therapist were ‘essential’. Marissa said: ‘Therapy was helpful for working out how I felt about what happened to me and what I wanted to do about it. Putting it down on paper and reading it back to myself was really powerful for me’.

Survivors described their experiences with different kinds of therapy. Carolyn described her experiences with one-on-one and group counselling, using dialectical behavioural therapy (DBT), a technique that helps people learn skills in mindfulness and emotional regulation: ‘I would recommend DBT to survivors out there; I saw a lot of survivors in that class. It’s been very important to me’. Erin echoed this sentiment: ‘Talk therapy with a trauma-informed therapist is so crucial. I tried other forms of therapy, but they didn’t get it’.

Many survivors suggested that finding a good counsellor or therapist took time. Eileen recommended to others that they should ‘interview several therapists to find the right one’. Jeannette referred to finding a therapist as a ‘process, but it’s a worthwhile one’. Lacy described her struggle to find a therapist that understood her cultural background and her experiences as a victim:

It took me a couple tries to find a therapist I liked. The first few didn’t understand my cultural background coming from an Asian family. Then I found an amazing therapist who helped me validate my feelings and sift through what I should let go of.

Advocating after assault

The structure of the blog posts allows the reader to follow a journey from beginning to end. At the end of each blog post, the survivor describes her or his life now, including their career, family life and advocacy work.

Brian described life after assault by saying: ‘I’m on this road to wellbeing. The fact that I keep taking each step makes me stronger’. While some survivors were able to construct a somewhat normal life despite their victimisation, others were influenced by their experience to advocate for others. Natalie, who now has a master’s degree in public health and works as a volunteer for the National Sexual Assault Hotline, said:

There is power in local advocacy. It can include supporting people you know who have been assaulted, helping them get access to services, and helping them with education. Eliminating a lot of the stigma, that’s huge.

Many of the survivors featured in this project are members of the RAINN Speakers Bureau, a group of 4,000 survivors located throughout the USA (RAINN Speakers Bureau, n. d.). Members of the Bureau go to events and speak to the media about their experiences. Monica described doing so as a healing experience: ‘When I joined the RAINN Speakers Bureau . . . I was around people who I knew who would support me, honor me, and give me a voice’.

Other survivors involved in the project published books and memoirs of their experiences to encourage others. Lisa described the following reasons for writing books about her experience:

I want to prepare people for how to respond to someone who decides to share these personal and intimate details. Some people find it very hard to handle your hurt. They don’t want to hear about it because they don’t know how to cope with it.

Several survivors focused on advocacy for university students who were the victims of sexual assault on campus. Lucy’s advocacy work involved fighting for justice in her sexual assault case over a 10-year period. She said: ‘The amount of back-and-forth, waiting for returned phone calls, leaving messages, reading about the law, trying to find information and answers, it was totally exhausting’. Lucy continued:

What keeps me going is knowing that I’m doing this on behalf of so many women out there who do not have justice. I just want to keep telling them, if we don’t keep hitting the wall, the wall won’t come down.

Another example of advocacy can be found in Maya’s story, which was first featured in The Hunting Ground, a documentary discussing the problem of sexual assault on US college campuses. Maya is now researching gender equity issues in graduate school and leading a student organisation to raise awareness of sexual abuse at her university. Finally, Tasha has worked to make sure that resources on college campuses, such as the Title IX office, are functioning properly and their services are well promoted: ‘For instance, if a campus claims to have a late-night security escort back to residence halls from the library, it has to be a reliable and functional service’.

While some survivors had sought not to become vocal advocates for sexual violence prevention through advocacy or book writing, all survivors seem willing to share their stories as they lived their lives. Megan was assaulted when she was serving in the armed forces and still talks to other members of the military community:

The more I speak out, the more positive responses I get. I hear from people all the time that this happened to (their) wife, partner, or mom. It made me realize, I’m not the only one with this skeleton in the closet.

Finally, some survivors have used their story as a form of advocacy through direct appeals to victims and to friends and family of victims. Kassie ended her account with the following quote: ‘You should tell somebody. It doesn’t matter who; go to a friend, mom, dad. If you can’t report it to the police, tell someone you trust’. Lilly described how the family and friends of an individual suffering domestic abuse should help them create a plan to stay safe: ‘The biggest priority is making sure that the person who is being abused understands that this isn’t safe, and that you support them’.

Discussion

This study identified four themes that described how blog posts discussed the diverse experiences of victims and encouraged victims to disclose their experiences of sexual assault. Overall, the blog posts provided a platform on which survivors could share their experiences of sexual assault while encouraging the development of healthy behaviours, including disclosure, for victims of sexual assault. Messages stressing self-efficacy and modelling positive health behaviours were present in almost every blog post and in the themes identified in this analysis. Testimonials offered support for key aspects of Chaudoir and Fisher’s (2010) disclosure process model for individuals living with concealable stigmatised identities, including how individuals considered their disclosure and navigated relationships before and after the disclosure event.

First, the blog posts focused on survivor narratives of overcoming sexual assault victimisation by using support systems and becoming an advocate for others. Although it is not possible to encompass the sum-total of individual experiences in approximately 800 words, the blog posts discussed the experiences of survivors openly, with a clear focus on the person’s journey and voice. The 46 survivors featured in the Survivor Stories project described their struggles and openly disclosed information about their physical and mental health that were a result of their victimisation. Although some survivors may still struggle, through their determination, their use of support, and their willingness to speak out, all the survivors in the project seemed to be on a journey to recovery.

Second, the blog posts seemed to model disclosure as a positive health behaviour for both sexual assault victims and the friends and family of victims through an emphasis on self-efficacy. Self-efficacy, a key tenet of Bandura’s (2001a, 2001b); social cognitive theory, was present in each of the themes identified in this analysis. Information online about positive health behaviours such as disclosure is particularly important because it is ‘readily available, convenient, and provides a feeling of anonymity’ (Bandura, 2004: 150). When this information also includes messages that explicitly encourage self-efficacy, blog posts can become persuasive tools to help sexual assault victims.

The blog posts seem to model disclosure as a positive health behaviour throughout their narratives and salient self-efficacy messages. When survivors in the project discussed how they overcame barriers to initial disclosure, dealt with struggles that were the result of their victimisation, and reached out for social support, they modelled self-efficacy to others. The posts also include quotes from survivors directed specifically at readers who might be victims to encourage them to be self-efficacious in disclosing details of their sexual assault. In addition, the blog posts seemed to model helpful behaviour for individuals who wanted to learn more about helping sexual assault victims. Often the blog posts included quotes from survivors offering advice about how to talk to sexual assault victims to reduce barriers to disclosure.

The blog posts also suggest that involvement in advocacy may be an important step on the journey from victim to survivor. When individuals disclose information about their concealable stigmatised identity, not only do they open themselves up to receive social support, but they also contribute to the dismantling of stigma socially and culturally (Brashers et al., 2002; Chaudoir and Fisher, 2010). Each disclosure can increase visibility of an otherwise concealed identity, which may reduce stigma and make it easier for future disclosure for others (Chaudoir and Fisher, 2010). When individuals read the blog posts of individuals who have made it from victim to advocate, this modelled behaviour may motivate disclosure on the individual level and contribute to the dismantling of stigma for others.

Implications

Taken together, research findings provide lessons for practitioners using media to motivate positive health behaviour from victims of sexual assault. The themes documented here signal the importance of self-efficacy and modelled behaviour in media content for victims of sexual assault. In addition, the themes suggest involvement in advocacy may be an important step in the journey from victim to survivor.

Identification, or the ability to emphasise with the perspective of media characters, is an important factor in the persuasiveness of media campaigns (Brown, 2015; Cohen, 2001). The fact that each blog post focuses on one story gives readers the chance to find a narrator with whom they share a common experience. The breadth of experiences of victimisation featured in the project, including representation of diverse gender identities, means that a wide audience of readers can find a survivor narrative tailored to their experience. Blog posts featuring specific storytellers may appeal to many different subsets of victims by encouraging identification, but more research is needed to understand this relationship.

Limitations

This study is not without its limitations. More research is needed to understand the effects of persuasive media on individuals in similar and unrelated contexts. While findings from the study may be of value to researchers and practitioners, the results are not generalisable to other health media campaigns for sexual assault victims. Although RAINN is a major nonprofit organisation, future research should explore media campaigns and health messages encouraging disclosure by a wider range of nonprofit organisations, both in the USA and internationally.

Research is also needed to understand the influence of different types of media campaigns and the different message features present in blogs. Video blogs may have a greater influence than written blogs in influencing the development of self-efficacy (Shen et al., 2015). Future research is needed to examine the effectiveness of survivor narratives presented in text, audio and visual formats in facilitating recovery and survivorship from sexual assault victims. The effect of different message features, including the use of narrative format and comments sections, is also worthy of examination (Stavrositu and Kim, 2015).

Conclusion

The RAINN Survivor Stories project provided a platform for survivors to share narratives about their journey after sexual assault victimisation, from initial disclosure to living a life of advocacy. The importance of self-efficacy was present in each of the four themes, suggesting its importance in tandem with modelled positive health behaviour in future media campaigns encouraging disclosure from sexual assault victims. Engagement in advocacy efforts may provide one way in which the victims of sexual assault can receive support and model positive behaviour for others.

Footnotes

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship and/or publication of this article.

ORCID iD

Rachel E Riggs

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