Abstract
With the introduction of the human development approach in the 1990s, the concept of development is no longer limited to raising per-capita income, industrial and technological advancement or social transformation. It has extended to humane development dimensions such as the equal distribution of resources, eradicating poverty, freedom of choice and justice. The current COVID-19 pandemic crisis has unveiled the flaws in the popular idea of ‘development’. It has left millions (of people) behind, rendering current development models unsustainable. The course of action followed by governments worldwide in handling the pandemic has reshaped the debate and broadened our understanding of the quality of life, self-respect, dignity, capabilities and entitlements, critical elements of the human development approach.
The continuing challenges of unsustainable growth, multidimensional poverty, climate change and rising inequalities require a reorientation of the present development doctrine towards a more humane, human development paradigm. The human development perspective has evolved in the last three decades, but its use has not been explored. K. Seeta Prabhu and Sandhya S. Iyer attempt to fill this gap in Human Development in an Unequal World. The book provides a straightforward exposition of the critical dimensions of human development and the capabilities approach. The book has 10 chapters. It intends to provide an objective assessment and comprehensive understanding of human development through conceptual, theoretical and empirical dimensions.
The introductory chapter begins with the theoretical evolution of the concept of ‘human development’. The human development concept is not a new one. The emergence of the human development concept can be traced from well-known thinkers and philosophers like Aristotle, Immanuel Kant, Jeremy Bentham, John Rawls and Robert Nozick. The human development approach differs from others like economic growth, human resource development, human capital and basic needs. The literature on human development mentions three important ways in which this approach differs from other approaches. These are (a) the definition of ends and means; (b) concern with human freedoms and dignity, and (c) concern with human agency, that is, the role of people in development.In this context, Prabhu and Iyer reflect on issues like human rights and human security as essential instruments in achieving human flourishing and well-being.
Chapters 2 and 3 discuss the concepts of capabilities, entitlements and human flourishing, fundamental to the human development discourse. One of this book’s essential elements is that it presents Sen and Martha Nussbaum’s approach to capability as an integrated theoretical framework that provides pathways to human development through productivity processes, empowerment, equity and sustainability; the authors also provide evidence of this from developing countries. The authors have argued that implementing the Right to Food Act 2013 in India has provided legal entitlements to existing food security and empowered the local population to demand effective implementation of the schemes (p. 48). The value of choices and freedoms is also discussed in the context of human flourishing and well-being. Freedom is the central element of the human development approach. It impresses on us the importance of enabling individual and collective agency to define well-being on their terms and make choices accordingly.
The chapter on Measuring Human Progress demonstrates the importance of measurements and how we measure human development in the policymaking process. There has been a shift from unidimensional to multidimensional measures in the last few decades. The United Nations Development Programme has developed the Human Development Indexmethodology for measuring human development, which is considered better than traditional measures such as GDP per capita. Similarly, there have been multidimensional indices presented at global Human Development Reports, such as the Human Poverty Index, Gender Development Index (GDI) and Gender Inequality Index. However, the world’s data systems fail to adequately capture the differences across social groups, genders and ethnic minorities. The vulnerability of individuals has not yet been mapped sufficiently, nor policies to address them gained prominence with governments.Better data monitoring and accountability are imperative with the approaching urgency to meet the Sustainable Development Goals(SDGs) 2030 indicators.
The fifth chapter presents empirical evidence of economic growth and human development processes across countries. Economic growth and human development cannot be seen disconnected as they influence each other in multiple ways. It juxtaposes the relationship between them in the light of globalisation and varying outcomes such as joblessness, impoverishment, displacement, migration, and income inequalities as challenges facing human development. Higher economic growth cannot ensure higher human development if inequalities are not adequately addressed. At the same time, there is substantive evidence that a lower GDP can impact human development indicators. Decisive state actions through affirmative policies to ensure that people have access to primary healthcare and education have proved beneficial. For example, Asian countries such as Indonesia, Malaysia and India recorded substantial improvements in their human development trajectories, including reducing poverty despite relatively low economic growth.
Social sectors continue to be oriented as those constituting welfare rather than being recognised for their intrinsic value of enhancing capabilities. The human development approach requires effective public spending and reallocation of public resources to social sectors, mainly focusing on health, education and nutrition rather than improving overall human well-being. The authors quote Dreze and Sen, who argue that state and people’s actions could strengthen market-led institutions to improve social development, including governance, integration and universality (p. 166). The four stylised facts, namely, initial conditions, redistributive ethos, sustained investment and integrated synergy in different sectors, can contribute to the effectiveness of social sector policies. There are many innovative and right-based policies initiated by developing countries. Like in India, the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act 2005 (MGNREGA) and Kudumbashree, in Brazil, the conditional cash transfers and the 30 Baht Scheme in Thailand (p. 169). The chapter also discusses the global thrust for Universal Basic Income as a direct mechanism to support every household with a cash transfer of equal value to address income inequalities.
In the seventh chapter, the authors indicate that poverty and inequality cannot be considered independent silos; they are interconnected. There is a gap between the definition and understanding of poverty in developing and developed countries. Poverty and deprivation are most commonly viewed through the monetary lens. The expectation placed on trickle-down economics to create a functioning system and alleviate those in poverty has failed. In sharp contrast, the human development approach provides a multidimensional lens to poverty and inequality. The multidimensional approach entails measuring both economic and non-economic indicators like necessary capabilities. Initial endowments and entitlements also determine the progress on poverty and inequality. Focusing on the inequality of opportunity is equally essential, apart from the inequality of outcomes.
Women’s marginalisation, capability deprivation, inequalities in access to the labour market, political participation, and access to social opportunities and protection are the primary concerns in the human development debate. In this chapter, Prabhu and Iyer discuss the four core human development processes, such as equity, sustainability, productivity and empowerment, to facilitate women’s well-being. The world continues to be an unequal arena for women, restricting their choices and freedoms and not considering their substantial contribution both in monetary and non-monetary spheres. The GDI is a robust methodology to measure gender equity. Furthermore, there is a need for separate indicators to measure women’s development in all socio-economic categories to identify gender-specific complications. This book explores the capability approach as an alternative paradigm for the inclusion of gender into the development discourse concerning women.
The penultimate chapter, focusing on the future, examines sustainable development in the broader context of human development. The human development approach subscribes to strong sustainability encompassing economic, social, and environmental aspects. Crisis of environmental degradation can impact millions’ livelihoods; hence, the community’s participation in protecting natural resources is significant. For example, India’s Chipko movement showed that women’s community-led movements could help preserve natural capital (p. 274). Similarly, social and economic sustainability also need a combination of public policy and community approaches. Sustainable human development can be achieved through decentralised governance, promoting necessary capabilities, increasing kinship ties, improved social competence and social cohesion, and an institutionally integrated freedom-centred approach.
Global policy and discussions are the much-needed platforms for developing countries to shape the future path of human development. It maybe useful to revive a global dialogue process beyond the mandates of the SDGs to encompass the economic choices, wellbeing and freedom of individuals that is the need of the moment. This broader perspective of human development is most suited for tackling challenges of the twenty-first century and in reorienting development towards a more equitable, sustainable and empowering world. However, some questions like ‘What has been achieved so far? What are the reasons for countries not adopting the human development paradigm? Why do countries focus on GDP growth despite the benefits of human development? How do we motivate the policymakers to adopt a people-centred approach and reducing inequalities, including gender disparities? Can the SDGs approach improve global cooperation on the human development paradigm?’ remain pertinent. Sustained discussions and dialogues are mandatory to address these questions.
To conclude, the book rightly argues for a paradigmatic shift in analysis, policy and methodology towards a people-centred approach rooted in human flourishing and freedoms. The authors make sincere efforts in providing strong empirical evidence, data and case studies with some fascinating insights into the human development approach. Discussions on climate change inequalities and injustices and their pervasive nature as well as how technological advancementslike machine learning and artificial intelligence can shape the world would have been a great addition to the book. The potential for a greater convergence through a broader analysis of the phenomenon in human development is also unfortunately absent in the book. A chapter on children’s well-being would have added further value to the book. Overall, the book Human Development in an Unequal World is engaging, intuitive and informative. The book is likely to interest graduate students, research scholars, development practitioners and subject experts as well.