Athletic identity and psychiatric symptoms following retirement from varsity sports

Abstract

Background:

Despite evidence identifying adjustment difficulties among retiring athletes, research investigating factors that contribute to post-retirement complications is limited. Athletic identity may be an important determinant of adverse adaptation to sport retirement.

Aims:

The purpose of this study was to address the influence of athletic identity on post-retirement depression and anxiety symptoms among varsity athletes.

Method:

An anonymous, online survey regarding athletic identity and psychiatric symptoms was completed by 72 self-identified varsity athletes during their final season of competition and 3 months after retiring from sport.

Results:

After controlling for the effects of pre-retirement anxiety symptoms, endorsement of an athletic identity significantly predicted anxiety symptoms in the post-retirement period. A similar, but non-significant, pattern was observed for depressive symptoms.

Conclusion:

The findings of this study suggest that athletes’ degree of athletic identity may be a risk factor for the emergence of psychiatric distress in the months following their retirement from sport. Identity-focused screening or intervention during athletes’ sport careers could potentially mitigate some of the psychological difficulties associated with sport retirement.

Keywords

Athletic identity sport retirement psychiatric distress athlete mental health sport transition varsity sport

Introduction

The end of one’s varsity sports career can be distressing as athletes contend with the social, vocational and emotional changes that accompany retirement from sport (Cosh, Crabb, LeCouteur, & Kettler, 2012; Grove, Lavallee, & Gordon, 1997). Indeed, such changes may place retiring athletes at a heightened risk for developing psychiatric symptoms following their retirement from varsity sport (Yang et al., 2007). There is accumulating evidence that some athletes experience tremendous difficulty transitioning away from their sport career, as demonstrated by high rates of psychological problems such as anxiety and depression (Park, Lavallee, & Tod, 2012; Weigand, Cohen, & Merestein, 2013). However, investigation of factors that contribute to post-retirement depression and anxiety among varsity athletes has been limited.

Athletic identity, the degree to which one identifies with the athletic role, has been proposed as a critical determinant of adaptation to sport retirement (Brewer, Van Raalte, & Linder, 1993; Smith & McManus, 2008). Due to their rigorous involvement in sport, and often without sufficient exploration of alternate self-roles, athletes may develop a constricted identity that can limit adaptive responses to life challenges, thereby contributing to psychosocial problems in retirement. Thus, athletes with strong and exclusive athletic identities may be especially prone to experiencing emotional and psychological difficulties upon sport career termination (Grove et al., 1997; Murphy, Petitpas, & Brewer, 1996). Previous research has outlined some of the adjustment difficulties associated with sport retirement (Lally, 2007; McKnight et al., 2009), as well as risk factors associated with elevated athletic identity (Fogarty & McGregor-Bayne, 2008; Houle & Kluck, 2015). However, no previous study has examined the influence of athletic identity on depression and anxiety symptoms following retirement from varsity sport. This study investigated the relationship between varsity athletes’ athletic identity and levels of depression and anxiety following retirement from their sport career. We hypothesized that stronger endorsement of athletic identity among varsity athletes would be associated with higher levels of depressive and anxious symptoms following retirement from sport.

Method

Participants

Participants were 72 self-identified varsity athletes from five Western Canadian universities who were in their final year of sport participation, and who responded to online and in-person study advertisements. Inclusion criteria were (a) current participation in a varsity sport, (b) in the final year of competition and (c) proficiency in English. Participants were 75% female (n = 54), with an average age of 22.1 years (standard deviation (SD) = 1.6). In all, 53% (n = 38) were in committed relationships, and 65% (n = 47) were employed. The sport teams most frequently represented were soccer (36%; n = 26) and basketball (13%; n = 9). The average age that participants began sport participation was 9.5 years (SD = 5.1) and the average number of years spent in sport was 13.8 (SD = 5.22). A summary of the demographic data is presented in Table 1.

Table 1.

Summary of demographic data (N = 72).

Variable	n (%)
Sex
Male	18 (25)
Female	54 (75)
Marital status
Single	34 (47.2)
Dating	38 (52.8)
Married	0 (0)
Employment status
Employed	47 (65.3)
Unemployed	24 (33.3)
Other	1 (1.4)
Varsity sport
Basketball	9 (12.5)
Soccer	26 (36.1)
Volleyball	3 (4.2)
Ice hockey	5 (6.9)
Softball	2 (2.8)
Swimming	2 (2.8)
Field hockey	5 (6.9)
Rugby	6 (8.3)
Cross country	2 (2.8)
Rowing	7 (9.7)
Wrestling	1 (1.4)
Track and field	4 (5.6)
Hours/per week in sport
0–5	3 (4.2)
6–10	13 (18.1)
11–15	24 (33.3)
More than 15	32 (44.4)

Measures

Athletic Identity Measurement Scale

The Athletic Identity Measurement Scale (AIMS) was used to measure the strength and exclusivity of athletic identity including its cognitive, affective and social foundations (Brewer et al., 1993). It is a 7-item, self-report measure that utilizes a 1 (strongly agree) to 7 (strongly disagree) rating scale, with items such as ‘I spend more time thinking about sport than anything else’; higher scores indicate stronger and more exclusive athletic identity. Cronbach’s alpha in the present sample was .82.

State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (Form Y-1)

The state anxiety subscale of the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI) was used to measure state anxiety (Spielberger, Gorsuch, Lushene, Vagg, & Jacobs, 1983). This scale consists of 20 self-report items (e.g. ‘I feel tense’) that are rated on a 1 (not at all) to 4 (very much so) Likert scale; higher scores indicate greater anxiety. Cronbach’s alpha in the present sample was .93.

Center for Epidemiologic Studies-Depression Scale

The Center for Epidemiologic Studies-Depression Scale (CES-D), which focuses on the affective component of depression, was used to measure depressive symptoms (Radloff, 1977). The CES-D is a 20 item, self-report measure (e.g. ‘I felt lonely’) that uses a 1 (rarely or none of the time) to 4 (most or all of the time) rating scale; higher scores indicate greater depressive symptomology. Cronbach’s alpha in the present sample was .91.

Procedures

The study obtained approval from the affiliated university’s ethics board. A repeated measures research design was used, with non-probability sampling. Participants completed an anonymous, online survey package at two time points: 1 month into starting their final season of competition (T1) and 3 months following retirement from sport (T2).

Analyses

A sequence of statistical tests was calculated to test our hypothesis that stronger endorsement of athletic identity would be associated with higher levels of depressive and anxious symptoms. First, preliminary analyses were conducted to examine potentially confounding effects of demographic characteristics of the participants on the variables of interest (athletic identity, depression, anxiety). Second, Pearson correlations were used to examine the relationships between athletic identity and depressive and anxiety symptoms at T1 and at T2. Finally, we conducted two hierarchical regression analyses, using post-retirement depressive symptoms and anxiety symptoms as the dependent variables in each analysis. The respective symptom variable at T1 was entered in Step 1 of each regression analysis in order to control for the effects of pre-retirement symptoms. Athletic identity at T1 was then entered in Step 2 of the model. The threshold for significance was set at p < .05.

Results

No significant associations were found between demographic variables and the variables of interest. Descriptive statistics and zero-order correlations for athletic identity and anxiety and depressive symptoms at both time points are presented in Table 2. Athletic identity was not related to psychiatric distress during the pre-retirement period; however, it was positively associated with post-retirement anxiety and depressive symptoms. As shown in Table 3, hierarchical regression analyses revealed that athletic identity significantly predicted anxiety symptoms following retirement from sport, even after controlling for the effects of pre-retirement anxiety symptoms. Although athletic identity did not significantly predict depressive symptoms in the post-retirement period (when controlling for pre-retirement depressive symptoms), the association, which approached statistical significance, was in the same direction as for anxiety symptoms.

Table 2.

Descriptive statistics and zero-order correlations between athletic identity, anxiety and depressive symptoms (N = 72).

	M (SD)	1	2	3	4
1. Athletic identity	37.5 (6.17)
2. Anxiety (T1)	34.9 (9.43)	.15
3. Anxiety (T2)	36.8 (10.22)	.34**	.35**
4. Depressive symptoms (T1)	12.0 (8.40)	.12	.65**	.26**
5. Depressive symptoms (T2)	11.6 (8.94)	.24**	.43*	.77**	.29*

SD: standard deviation; T1: Time 1 (1 month into final season of sport competition); T2: Time 2 (3 months following sport retirement).

Correlation is significant at the .01 level (two-tailed).

Correlation is significant at the .05 level (two-tailed).

Table 3.

Final regression models for athletic identity, anxiety and depressive symptoms (N = 72).

	b	SE·b	β	F	t	R²(ΔR²)
Hierarchical regression I
Step 1				10.01**		.13
Constant	23.41	4.38			5.34***
Pre-retirement anxiety	0.38	0.12	0.35**		3.16**
Step 2				9.14***		(.08)
Constant	6.94	7.38			0.94
Pre-retirement anxiety	0.33	0.12	0.31**		2.83**
Athletic identity	0.49	0.18	0.29**		2.71**
Hierarchical regression II
Step 1				6.35*		.08
Constant	7.94	1.78			4.45***
Pre-retirement depression	0.31	0.12	0.29*		2.52*
Step 2				4.84*		(.04)
Constant	−2.65	6.24			−.43
Pre-retirement depression	0.28	0.12	0.26*		2.33*
Athletic identity	0.30	0.16	0.20		1.77

SE: standard error.

p < .05; **p < .01; ***p < .001.

Discussion

Results from this study provide evidence that athletic identity – as endorsed during athletes’ sport career – is associated with the emergence of anxiety symptoms in the months following retirement from sport. In other words, the strength and exclusivity of the athletic role during sport participation increase athletes’ potential vulnerability to psychiatric distress after leaving sport. Thus, identity-related concerns may signal future psychiatric risk issues among athletes. This is in accordance with previous findings of a link between athletic identity and depressive symptoms in response to imagined and actual career-ending athletic injuries (Brewer, 1993). Indeed, although athletic identity did not significantly predict post-retirement depression, we speculate that as the aftermath of sport retirement sinks in, depressive feelings may eventually accompany anxiety symptoms among athletes with identities tied strongly to sport.

Therefore, addressing athletes’ athletic identity during sport participation can potentially forestall psychiatric illness in retirement. Specifically, identity-focused screening or psychotherapeutic intervention supporting identity development during sport participation could potentially mitigate some of the psychological challenges associated with sport retirement. Enhancing athletes’ perceptions of who they can become outside of sport can contribute to more robust career transition outcomes. This study was limited by the absence of a follow-up survey, preventing us from learning whether participants eventually developed a psychiatric disorder; similarly, we lacked information as to whether participants had a pre-existing mental health condition. Further empirical investigation, using more sophisticated research designs, is needed in order to advance our understanding of the impact of athletic identity on psychiatric symptoms among retiring varsity athletes. Moreover, such work can lead to the development of evidence-based interventions for athletes with heightened risk of mental health challenges.

Footnotes

Funding

The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: This research was supported by funding from the Social Science and Humanities Research Council of Canada and the Faculty of Education at the University of British Columbia.

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