Resilience in adolescent refugees living in Malaysia: The association with religiosity and religious coping

Abstract

Background:

Until now, there is scarcity of information regarding resilience, religiosity and religious coping among adolescent refugees. Currently, most researches emphasize on the physical, psychological and social distresses experienced by refugees while overlooking these crucial aspects, that is, resilience and coping.

Aim:

The study aimed to examine resilience and its association with religiosity and religious coping among adolescent refugees living in Malaysia.

Methods:

This is a cross-sectional study conducted in five community-based learning centres in Malaysia from July 2019 till December 2019. A total of 152 refugees, aged 13 to 19-years-old, were recruited. The study gauged resilience using the 14-Item Resilience Scale (RS-14), the Duke University Religion Index (DUREL) for religiosity and the Brief Religious Coping Scale (Brief RCOPE) for religious coping.

Results:

The majority of adolescent refugees portrayed moderate levels of resilience (43.5%). The study highlighted the interconnectedness between resilience and intrinsic religiosity (IR) (p < .001), as well as, positive (p < .001) and negative (p = .010) religious coping. Additionally, the results demonstrated that certain sociodemographic factors could potentially confound resilience, namely, countries of origin (p < .001), religion (p < .001), education centre (p < .001) and refugee status (p = .018).

Conclusion:

With knowledge from this study, mental health professionals can initiate or improve liaison with religious-based services in working together to provide resources for adolescent refugees. Incorporating information regarding mental health with religious teachings may help increase resilience in young refugees and, in turn, alleviate their psychological distress.

Keywords

Adolescent refugees resilience religiosity religious coping

Introduction

The outlook regarding refugees in recent years has been grim. The number of refugees has remarkably increased worldwide, yet their resettlement anywhere is a quandary. Malaysia is not a signatory country to the 1951 Convention and 1967 Protocol (Hoffstaedter, 2017; Lomo, 2012; UN Refugee Agency, 2010). Thus, the Malaysian government does not have the provision to legalize these refugees (Hoffstaedter, 2017; Low et al., 2014). However, Malaysia continues to host these refugees participating at least providing them with temporary housing and basic aids. A vast majority of about 152,220 asylum-seekers and refugees residing in Malaysia are from Myanmar (UNHCR, 2018).

These refugees continue to face a myriad of challenges (Lego, 2012; Todd et al., 2019). Most are without any legal documents (Lego, 2012). They are subjected to Malaysia’s corporal punishment, fines, imprisonment, and face deportation if caught by the authorities (Lego, 2012; Low et al., 2018 ). Consequently, they live in continual fear and improbability about their future. It is not surprising that similar to other refugees around the globe, the refugees in Malaysia are susceptible to numerous problems, particularly, psychological distress as a result of their forced displacement and unsettled relocation (Carlson & Rosser-Hogan, 1993; Low et al., 2014; Vernez, 1991).

The accurate number of children and adolescent refugees is not available (Derluyn & Broekaert, 2008). However, reports estimated that children under the age of 18 make up close to half of the worldwide refugee population (Bhabha & Young, 1999; Russell, 1999). From the total number of asylum-seekers and refugees in Malaysia, 44,800 are below the age of 18 (UNHCR, 2018).

Arslan (2016) and Ziaian, de Anstiss, Antoniou, Sawyer, et al. (2012) are among researchers who demonstrated that young refugees have a higher risk of developing mental health disorders compared to older refugees. The trauma in which these young refugees experienced before, during and after their migration increases their risk of developing mental health disorders (Fazel & Stein, 2002, 2003).

Unfortunate circumstances in their homeland forced the young refugees to leave their country resulting in many to survive deprived of their parents (Arslan, 2016; Ziaian, de Anstiss, Antoniou, Baghurst, et al., 2012; Ziaian, de Anstiss, Antoniou, Sawyer, et al., 2012). Many are without any adult guardian caring for them following their migration (Bhabha & Young, 1999; Russell, 1999). Furthermore, they are at a disadvantaged of any education, shelter, as well as, adequate healthcare (Betancourt et al., 2015; Low et al., 2018).

Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) appears to be the most common mental health disorder reported among adolescent refugees (Fazel et al., 2005) with a significant proportion experiencing depression (Low et al., 2018; Ziaian, de Anstiss, Antoniou, Sawyer, et al., 2012).

Hodes (2000) found that not all young refugees develop mental health problems following their migration. Miller and Rasco (2004) hypothesized that resilience and coping might contribute to why some do relatively better than others. Resilience denotes the process of adapting or recovering from any form of stress, adversity, or tragedy (Mancini & Bonanno, 2006; Southwick et al., 2014).

Viladrich and Abraído-Lanza (2009), Koenig (2009) and Campbell et al. (2007) are among researchers who believed in the positive influence of religiosity on one’s physical and psychological health. Until today, there are only a scarce of researches about the role religion plays in the lives of these vulnerable population, that is, among adolescent refugees (Kohli, 2006).

Eminent researchers in the field of coping that is, Lazarus and Folkman (1984), have consistently emphasized the importance of incorporating religion in studies about coping. Religious coping has been widely practiced among refugees as it is relatively assessable and brings about a sense of comfort, continuity and meaning of life amidst difficult times (McMichael et al., 2011; Ní Raghallaigh, 2010; Sleijpen et al., 2016).

Given the scarcity of data regarding resilience among adolescent refugees, their strength and coping abilities in the face of adversity, the author prudently planned and conducted the study among the younger population of refugees living in Malaysia. The study examined resilience, along with religiosity and religious coping among the adolescent refugees, and appraised any association between resilience, religiosity, and religious coping among these refugees.

Methods

Setting for the study

This cross-sectional study was carried out from July to December 2019. A convenient sampling method was used in this study. Firstly, several community-based learning centres for adolescent refugees located around Kuala Lumpur were identified. The directors of each learning centres were contacted and explained regarding the proposed research.

In this study, we had the opportunity and privilege to work with five community-based learning centres. There are as stated: Shalom Education Centre, Fugee School, Ruth Education Centre, Manna House Learning Centre and Mon Refugees Organization. These centres cater for children and adolescent refugees of different ethnicity, nationality and religion.

Upon their agreement to participate in the study, the team made an appointment to meet the subjects at the respective learning centres. The study was explained thoroughly to the participants, as well as, their parents and teachers; with the aid of the study information sheet. The study recruited a total of 152 adolescent refugees who fulfilled the selection criteria. Eligibility criteria indicated that the participants have to be from a refugee background, currently residing in Kuala Lumpur, aged 13 to 19-years-old and are literate in the English language. Adolescent refugees were excluded if their age was disputed or if they struggled with the English language.

It would be worth noting that the learning centres teach English as a foreign language to all their students. These centres also conducted all other subjects in the English language. Thus, there was no language barrier encountered by the research team when communicating with the participants who fulfilled the inclusion criteria as they had an adequate understanding of the English language.

Ethical considerations and informed consent

Before starting the work, the study received approval from the University of Malaya Research Ethical Committee (UMREC) (UM. TNC2/UMREC-582). Besides this, the team sought permission from the UNHCR, Malaysia because of the delicate status of the refugee population. Given the vulnerable age group representing the study population, the team took a-two-layer consent from both the adolescent and a parent or legal guardian. Participation in the research was entirely voluntary and anonymous. Participants may withdraw their participation and any identifiable data at any time, without prejudice.

Participants

The sociodemographic data for all participants (N = 152) were analyzed through descriptive analysis (Table 1). The participants ranged from ages 13 to 19-years-old (mean ± SD = 15.40 ± 1.75); all attended secondary education in the community-based learning centres. A total of 84 participants (55.3%) were females; while the remaining 68 (44.7%) were males. The majority of the subjects were from Myanmar (69.7%), followed by Somalia (19.7%), Sri Lanka (4.6%), Yemen (2.6%), Pakistan (1.3%), as well as, Kenya, Nigeria and Iraq constituting 0.7% of the study population. In terms of religion, most of the subjects were Christians (48.7%), followed by Muslim (27%) and Buddhist (24.3%).

Table 1.

Sociodemographic characteristics of study participants (n = 152).

	Mean/SD	Frequency (%)
Age (years old)	15.40/1.75
Gender
Male		68 (44.7)
Female		84 (55.3)
Nationality
Myanmar		106 (69.7)
Somalia		30 (19.7)
Kenya		1 (0.7)
Yemen		4 (2.6)
Nigeria		1 (0.7)
Sri Lanka		7 (4.6)
Pakistan		2 (1.3)
Iraq		1 (0.7)
Religion
Christian		74 (48.7)
Islam		41 (27.0)
Buddhist		37 (24.3)
Education
Grade 7		53 (34.9)
Grade 8		46 (30.3)
Grade 9		39 (25.7)
Grade 10		12 (7.9)
Grade 11		2 (1.3)
School
Shalom Education Centre		21 (13.8)
Ruth Education Centre		47 (30.9)
Fugee School		36 (23.7)
Mon Refugee Children Education Centre		25 (16.4)
Sunway Mentari Learning Centre		23 (15.1)
Card Holder
Passport		2 (1.3)
UNHCR		115 (75.7)
Community		35 (23.0)
Year of Living in Malaysia
1 year and less		1 (0.7)
More than 1 year		151 (99.3)

Data collection

Data collection was conducted in private rooms at the community-based learning centers. The team planned scheduled sessions with the participants, with no proxy allowed. The sociodemographic forms and questionnaires on resilience, religiosity and religious coping were distributed to the adolescents for completion. During the process, the research team was readily available to assist participants who had any enquiries pertaining to the study instruments.

Measures

The instruments used in the study are self-administered questionnaires, in their original English language versions, respectively. The brief RCOPE and DUREL questionnaires were pretested to the adolescents before the study. Ten randomly selected students from each of the five community-based learning centres participated in the pretest. The team conducted a pretest on the same subjects as those who participated in our study. The team utilized their feedback to determine the acceptability and relevance of the survey items. The students unanimously agreed that the questionnaires were comprehensible and relevant.

14-Item Resilience Scale (RS-14)

The RS-14 is a self-report scale comprising of 14 items measuring the five core characteristics of resilience: perseverance, self-reliance, purpose, existential aloneness and equanimity (Losoi et al., 2013; Masten et al., 1990). Each of these 14 items is scored on a 7-point Likert-type scale from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree) (Friborg et al., 2003; Wagnild & Young, 1993). A total score below 65 indicate a low degree of resilience, a moderate degree of resilience with scores between 65 and 81, and scores above 81 show high levels of resilience (Wagnild, 2009, 2014,; Wagnild & Young, 1993).

Pritzker and Minter (2014) identified the RS-14 as a psychometrically reliable and cross-ethnically valid brief measure of resilience. Several studies have also proven that the RS possesses good validity and reliability (Ahern et al., 2006; Wagnild, 2003). The tool also demonstrates brevity, readability, as well as, ease of scoring deeming it feasible to use among adolescents who are experiencing challenges in life (Solans et al., 2008).

Brief Religious Coping Scale (Brief RCOPE)

The Brief RCOPE is a 14-item scale which measures religious coping skills in individuals facing major life stressors (Pargament et al., 2011). The Brief RCOPE is divided into two subscales, namely, the positive religious coping (PRC) subscale and the negative religious coping (NRC) subscale (Pargament et al., 1998). Each subscale consists of seven positive coping items (P COPE) and seven negative coping items (N COPE) respectively. Each of these 14 items is scored on a 4-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (not at all) to 4 (a great deal) (Pargament et al., 2011). The total score ranges from 7 to 28 for both the positive and negative subscales (Pargament et al., 2011).

Studies have demonstrated internal consistency of the Brief RCOPE (Khan & Watson, 2006; Van Dyke et al., 2009). Empirical studies have supported the construct, incremental and predictive validity of these subscales (Cotton et al., 2009; Van Dyke et al., 2009).

Duke University Religion Index (DUREL)

DUREL is a comprehensive and simple instrument for the measurement of religiosity (Koenig & Büssing, 2010). It consists of five-items that measure three dimensions of religiosity: Organized Religious Activity (ORA), Non-Organized Religious Activity (Schwartz et al., 2000) and Intrinsic Religiosity (IR) (Koenig et al., 1997). ORA represents communal religious activities, for example attending public places of worship and participation in religious activities. NORA refers to religious activities carried out personally, such as personal meditation, personal prayer sessions, and private scripture reading.

The IR evaluates an individual’s degree of religious commitment and motivation (Koenig et al., 1997). The DUREL measures these three-dimensions separately. Overall, the scale has a high internal consistence (Cronbach’s alpha ranging from 0.78 to 0.91) and high test-retest reliability (Plante et al., 2002; Storch et al., 2004).

Sociodemographic data

The following information was collected: age, gender, nationality, religion, education level, education center, parental occupation, years living in Malaysia, and refugee status (having passport, UNHCR or community cardholders).

Statistical analysis

Data from the 152 completed the questionnaires were analyzed using Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) version 23.0. Descriptive statistics in the form of percentages and frequency for categorical data and mean, as well as, standard deviation for numerical data were used.

Association between resilience and sociodemographic characteristics of the study subjects were assessed using one-way ANOVA test and chi-square analysis. Associations between resilience with religiosity and religious coping were assessed using one-way ANOVA test, followed by Scheffe’s procedure, to determine which categorical pairs were significant. Subsequently, Pearson Correlation was performed to further confirm the correlation between the variables. All tests are two-tailed, with significance level of p < .05.

Finally, a multiple level regression analysis was conducted. In the phase, both forward and backward stepwise variable selection procedures were applied with p < .05 as a significant variable to be included into the model.

Results

A total of 152 students (68 boys and 84 girls), age 13–19 years (mean = 15.40, SD = 1.75) participated in the study. In the association between resilience and sociodemographic characteristics, the participant’s resilience showed an association with their nationality, religion, education center and their refugee status (Table 2).

Table 2.

Association between participant’s resilience and their sociodemographic characteristics.

Variable	N	Resilience score			X² / F Statistic (df)	p-value
Variable	N	Low	Moderate	High	X² / F Statistic (df)	p-value
Age (years old)	152	15.16 (1.78)	15.29 (1.73)	15.92 (1.69)	2.24 (2)	.110^a
Gender
Male	68	25 (51.0)	24 (36.4)	19 (51.4)	3.31 (2)	.191^b
Female	84	24 (49.0)	42 (63.6)	18 (48.6)
Nationality
Myanmar	106	43 (87.8)	52 (78.8)	11 (29.7)	48.73 (2)	<.001^b
Somalia	30	4 (8.2)	8 (12.1)	18 (48.6)
Kenya	1	0 (0.0)	1 (1.5)	0 (0.0)
Yemen	4	1 (2.0)	1 (1.5)	2 (5.4)
Nigeria	4	0 (0.0)	0 (0.0)	1 (2.7)
Sri Lanka	1	1 (2.0)	4 (6.1)	2 (5.4)
Pakistan	7	0 (0.0)	0 (0.0)	2 (5.4)
Iraq	1	0 (0.0)	0 (0.0)	1 (2.7)
Religion
Christian	74	36 (53.1)	40 (60.6)	8 (21.6)	43.94 (4)	<.001^b
Islam	41	5 (10.2)	11 (16.7)	25 (67.6)
Buddhist	37	18 (36.7)	15 (22.7)	4 (10.8)
Education
Grade 7	53	18 (36.7)	27 (40.9)	8 (21.6)	15.06 (8)	.058^b
Grade 8	46	19 (38.8)	19 (28.8)	8 (21.6)
Grade 9	39	10 (20.4)	13 (19.7)	16 (43.2)
Grade 10	12	1 (2.0)	6 (9.1)	5 (13.5)
Grade 11	2	1 (2.0)	1 (1.5)	0 (0.0)
School
Shalom Education Centre	21	3 (6.1)	12 (8.2)	6 (16.2)	42.91 (8)	<.001^b
Ruth Education Centre	47	22 (44.9)	24 (36.4)	1 (2.7)
Fugee School	36	5 (10.2)	10 (15.2)	21 (56.8)
Mon Refugee Children Education Centre	25	12 (24.5)	10 (15.2)	3 (8.1)
Sunway Mentari Learning Centre	23	7 (14.3)	10 (15.2)	6 (16.2)
Card Holder
Passport	2	0 (0.0)	2 (3.0)	0 (0.0)	11.86 (4)	.018^b
UNHCR	114	36 (73.5)	44 (66.7)	35 (94.6)
Community	35	13 (26.5)	20 (30.3)	2 (5.4)
Year of Living in Malaysia
1 year and less	1	1 (2.0)	0 (0.0)	0 (0.0)	2.11 (2)	.347^b
More than 1 year	151	48 (98.0)	66 (100.0)	37 (100.0)

One-way ANOVA.

Chi-square test.

In the association between resilience with religious coping, participants who possessed higher PRC scores were found to have higher resilience categories (Table 3). Accordingly, those with higher NRC scores were found to be at lower resilience categories.

Table 3.

Association between resilience and religious coping.

Variable	Resilience category			F(df)	p-value	Resilience score 1
Variable	Low	Moderate	High	F(df)	p-value	Pearson correlation	p-value
N	49	66	37
PRC	20.86 (4.67)	23.71 (4.91)	25.86 (2.54)	14.32 (2, 149)^a	<.001 ^b	.388^c	.001^c
NRC	16.55 (4.36)	16.56 (5.37)	13.59 (3.86)	5.50 (2, 149)^a	.005 ^b	−.209^c	.010^c

One-way ANOVA test.

All three pairs of mean scores are significantly different by post-hoc test (Scheffe’s procedure).

A Pearson Correlation was then conducted using the total resilience score, PRC and NRC; indicating a significant (linear) correlation between resilience and the PRC and NRC score.

Associations between participant’s resilience and their religiosity showed that ORA and IR had significant associations with resilience (p value of .004 and < .001 respectively) (Table 4). NORA showed no significant associations with resilience (p = .109). Subsequently, the Scheffe’s procedure and Pearson Correlation concluded that only IR demonstrated a significant correlation with resilience, that is, participants who possessed higher IR scores, showed higher resilience scores.

Table 4.

Association between resilience and religiosity.

Variable	Resilience category			F(df)	p-value	Resilience score 1
Variable	Low	Moderate	High	F(df)	p-value	Pearson correlation	p-value
N	49	66	37
ORA	3.51 (1.83)	4.23 (1.74)	4.32 (1.63)	3.13 (2, 149)^a	.047 ^b	.133^c	.101^c
NORA	3.86 (1.54)	4.12 (1.33)	4.49 (1.15)	2.25 (2, 149) ^a	.109^b	.122^c	.135^c
IR	10.55 (2.25)	11.92 (2.33)	13.54 (1.68)	20.20 (2, 149) ^a	<.001 ^b	.484^c	<.001^c

One-way ANOVA test.

All three pairs of mean scores are significantly different by post-hoc test (Scheffe’s procedure).

A Pearson Correlation was then conducted using the total resilience score with ORA, NORA and IR; indicating a significant (linear) correlation only between resilience and intrinsic religiosity.

A multiple regression analysis to investigate the relationship between sociodemographic characteristics, religious coping, and religiosity with resilience showed that only three factors were significant and fitted into the prediction model. These factors were positive and negative religious coping respectively, and IR (Table 5). There was a significant linear relationship between resilience and PRC (p = .002), NRC (p = .027), as well as, IR (p < .001).

Table 5.

Factors associated to resilience score among participants (n = 152).

	Adj. b^a	(95% CI)	t stat^b	p value
PRC	0.72	(0.28, 6.17)	3.21	.002
NRC	−0.45	(−0.85, −0.05)	−2.24	.027
IR	1.72	(0.82, 2.58)	3.28	<.001

Adjusted regression coefficient.

Multiple linear regression (R² = 0.33).

Discussion

Different categories of psychological approaches have been identified and proposed to alleviate traumatic stress. There is growing interest and evidence indicating religiosity and religious coping correlates with good physical and mental health (Koenig, 2012).

The present study focused on resilience and its association with religious coping and religiosity among adolescent refugees living in Malaysia. Malaysia provides temporary aids hosting a significant number of refugees and asylum-seekers. Low et al. (2018) found a third of the adolescent refugees’ surveyed experienced moderate to severe depression, anxiety and stress levels.

The study revealed that sociodemographic characteristics in the form of countries of origin, religion, place of education, and, the adolescents’ refugee status, influence their degree of resilience. In contrast, sociodemographic characteristics such as age, gender, level of education and years of living in Malaysia did not show any association with resilience.

Comparably, Ziaian, de Anstiss, Antoniou, Baghurst, et al. (2012) in a study among 170 adolescent refugees living in South Australia demonstrated an association between levels of resilience with the participants’ country of origin and religious belief. Ziaian, de Anstiss, Antoniou, Baghurst, et al. (2012) found a significant correlation among Yugoslavian, Middle Eastern and African refugees. Greater resilience was associated with secure relationships in the Yugoslavian participants, while the Middle Easterners and were related to their strong religious beliefs (Ziaian, de Anstiss, Antoniou, Baghurst, et al., 2012). Similarly, Huemer et al. (2013) in his study on repression, resilience and vulnerability among unaccompanied African minors refugee, highlighted the impact of countries of origin and the degree of resilience. The findings are not surprising as parents often instill religious beliefs and practices in their children from a very early age. As the children grow older, their social and cultural environment continues to shape their religious beliefs and practices. Countless individuals turn to their faith looking to God in search of strength when faced with tough times. Knowingly, the children’s religious beliefs and practices might be their only connection left with their country of origin.

The study revealed that adolescent refugees who practiced Islam demonstrated higher levels of resilience, compared to their Buddhist and Christian counterparts. The presence of their family may have significantly contributed to this. All Muslim adolescent refugees who participated in this study were from the Fugee School. Unlike the other four learning centers which provided boarding facilities to the vast majority of their students, participants from the Fugee School return daily to their families. An unaccompanied child and being in a host country is at risk of developing psychological distress as they struggle to cope alone (Bean et al., 2007; Derluyn et al., 2008; Hodes et al., 2008). The availability of parental support and family togetherness are associated with lesser psychological distress, as well as, more robust degree of resilience among refugee minors (Kovacev & Shute, 2004; Rousseau et al., 2004).

In Malaysia, most of the children are in boarding run by non-government organizations (NGOs). The NGO’s are community-based services mainly set up by religious organizations. Thus, despite the cultural differences, the refugees are allowed to continue with their religion, particularly as the religious-based organization has religious beliefs and practices that are similar to that of the refugees’.

Thus, in terms of religiosity and religious coping, it is not surprising that the findings found the participants continue to practice their religious beliefs. Three-quarters of the participants (75.6%) make an effort to practice their religion when dealing with everyday life situations. Slightly more than half of the participants (55.9%) spend time connecting with God through meditation, praying or reading the holy book at least once daily. More than half of the participants (61.2%) use their religious beliefs in as many approaches in life.

The IR component measures the degree of personal religious belief, commitment and motivation of an individual. Koenig et al. (1997) hypothesized, the higher the individual’s IR, the more likely is the individual’s religious commitment and motivation to their religion. The study found no association between resilience and the ORA and NORA dimensions of the DUREL questionnaire.

Ní Raghallaigh (2010) assessed the role of religion among 32 unaccompanied refugee minors from 13 different nationalities and living in the Republic of Ireland. The results showed similarities to the present study, there is a strong correlation between religiosity and religious coping with resilience. Ní Raghallaigh (2010) found the adolescents’ religiosity and positive religious coping strategies were compelling ways for them to cope with the myriad of obstacles encountered upon their migration. Religion provides its believers with a sense of spirituality offering the believers a purpose, meaning and connectedness to life (Bhugra & Osbourne, 2004; Verghese, 2008). In the study, Ní Raghallaigh (2010) discovered that a vast majority of participants viewed their relationship with God as momentous. The participants frequently described God as a caring and loving presence in their life.

The closeness felt between them, and God provided the young refugees with a sense of purpose and understanding, feelings of comfort and companionship, and importantly an increased sense of control over their current unstable situations. Additionally, the study sample also thought that God knew them well. The feeling of being ‘known’ by a great and powerful God was comforting to these adolescents as many do not have their parents or family members with them throughout their challenging times. Knowing and hoping God know their existence often provide these young refugees with an understanding of their sufferings. Thus, having carers with similar religious beliefs and practices is helpful for young refugees as they can continue to practice their religious faith and practices. Furthermore, having someone who understands their sufferings may facilitate discussion, particularly those related their pain and suffering and possibly expedite their adaptations.

There were other studies performed among young refugees which also showed similar findings like ours. Goodman (2004) performed a qualitative study among unaccompanied Sudanese refugees resettled in America. Goodman (2004) concluded that the young participants believed in the power of God, and it is only God who determines when one dies. Kanji and Cameron (2010) saw a similar picture. Kanji and Cameron (2010) found that among young Muslim Afghan children, religious coping skills helped them deal with their feelings of sadness or loneliness.

Various other studies also concluded that young refugees turned to religion when faced with tumultuous challenges in life (McMichael, 2002; Schweitzer et al., 2007). Religiosity and positive religious coping mechanism improves resilience as it gives the adolescents hope that someone is looking after them, which subsequently leads to positive adaptation and recovery when encountering major life stressors (Day, 2009).

Religion is unique (Baetz, 2013). Religious beliefs, practices and commitment can provide both positive and negative experiences for its believers. While generally the beliefs and commitment generate peace, self-confidence, purpose, including forgiveness to others; it can too, bring about feelings of guilt, doubts, anxiety, depression and anger (Baetz, 2013). In these negative instances, religious beliefs and practices may cause challenges to one’s mental health. The research has shown thus far, in the young refugees, religiosity and religious coping are helpful resources for these young refugees faced with prolonged uncertainties. Many of the study participants frequently partake in religious activities run by the centres, which further enhance their religious practices and commitment. Thankfully, religious activities run by the centres are on par with that of the refugees.

Several strengths and limitations were noted in the study. It may be one of few studies about resilience, religiosity and religious coping among the adolescent refugee population in Malaysia. Secondly, the study incorporated participants from diverse nationalities. Based on the places of migration, the study sample held on to three main religious believes and faiths, that is, Christianity, Islam and Buddhism.

One of the limitations identified is the recruitment strategy of convenience adopted in the study. This may result in sampling bias, which could eventually limit the generalizability of the findings. Besides this, the study did not include a control group. Without the presence of a control group, we are unable to compare the results obtained from this research among adolescent refugees with that of non-refugee adolescents. The study did not investigate on the presence of family and accessibility of support systems as potential sociodemographic confounders. As a result of this, there is no data from our study pertaining to these important potential confounders.

Conclusion

There is a worrying trend as a vast, and a growing number of young refugees are spending their entire lives in refugee camps (UNHCR, 2018). In offering aid to these young refugees, it is pertinent to identify factors that are associated with risk and positive adaptation of the children.

The present study determined a positive association between resilience with religiosity and religious coping among adolescent refugees. Religiosity could act as a precursor to resilience and serve as a protective mechanism for these minors as they weather the uncertainties. Religiosity and religious coping represented essential sources of comfort, hope and purpose to these minors.

However, the authors are aware of misguided religion and social doctrines. Thus, the authors recommend longitudinal researches investigating the correlation between religiosity and stress resilience years after traumatic experiences. Mental health services and faith-based groups who are already present within the community should cooperate with one another to initiate and improve religious-based support services and resources for adolescent refugees. These collaborative measures could provide cost effective, post-traumatic support systems that could enhance resilience and reduce their psychological distress.

Footnotes

Acknowledgements

The research team would like to express their gratitude to the UNHCR, Malaysia for giving us the permission to conduct the study. We would also want to thank all the young participants who shared their experiences and views with us, as well as, to the community-based learning centres who facilitated this research.

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

ORCID iD

Mervyn Ian Sim Peng Chow

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