Direct control of cultural events as a means of leveraging the sustainable attractiveness of the territory? Analysis of the managerial conditions for success

Abstract

One of the problems inherent to management within today’s devolved public authorities is the far-reaching change in their modes of action (Divay and Mazouz, 2008). We observe in particular an ever-greater integration of cultural policies and actions in their strategies, prompted by the territories’ desire to secure their sustainable attractiveness. To achieve this strategic objective, an increasing number of territories are opting for the organization of events, particularly cultural, that are considered to be medium-term goals. This ambition to become a festive city boasting a rich programme of events marks a change in territorial management that is moving more and more towards project management and at the same time raises questions about the definition of the strategy around the event and its implementation within the organization and within the territory. The case of the ‘Picasso-Aix 2009’ season makes it possible here, through a unique and exemplary case study, to consider the managerial conditions that make it possible to maximize the potential of the cultural event as a means of leveraging the sustainable attractiveness of the territory.

Points for practitioners

This research highlights the risks of an ‘eventization’ of culture and territories and raises questions about the methods used to manage a cultural event at the intercommunal level (elements relating to the territorial strategy) that is produced under the direct control of the intercommunal departments (elements relating to internal management methods). More than a monograph to shed light on the issue, this article proposes a toolkit of generic key success factors on which practitioners can draw to build their portfolio of cultural events at territorial level and touches on strategic development as well as project management and stakeholders.

Keywords

cultural event direct management qualitative study via a single case study strategy and territorial governance sustainable territorial attractiveness

Introduction

At a time when territories are faced with the ever-growing phenomenon of globalization, territorial managers are increasingly prone to organize events with ‘a high added-value and a high image-boosting potential, designed to build up the profile of the cities and give them more soul and media impact’ (Gravari-Barbas and Jacquot, 2007). Yet, despite the enthusiasm of a large number of territories for culture, there is never any certainty that the cultural action rolled out will be a success (Lucchini, 2002). Seeing as success is never guaranteed, this research aims to determine the managerial requirements needed for the socioeconomic impact of a cultural event under direct control to be positive and lasting within the host territory. It therefore invites us to rethink the management of a cultural event produced by a local authority in terms of strategic goals resulting in the sustainable attractiveness of the territory (in social, economic, social and civic terms).

Analysing the case of the ‘Picasso-Aix 2009’ season in the Community of the Pays d’Aix¹ (CPA), through semi-structured interviews conducted among a representative sample of the event’s stakeholders, makes it possible to highlight the emerging managerial methods and practices through a manual content analysis. This research thus makes it possible to inform managers about the ‘upstream’ aspect, that is to say how to successfully organize a cultural event under direct control.

The first part of this article reviews the literature addressing the design and implementation of cultural events. The objective is to come up with three research proposals that will be discussed subsequently (Section 1). Reference is made here to research proposals and not assumptions. This is due to the epistemological positioning of the researchers and the logical reasoning applied to this research. The assumption, as understood by Karl Popper, refers to hypothetical-deductive approaches based on validation/refutation of assumptions. Our goal here is to develop an understanding based on thought patterns integrating inductive and abductive reasoning and not only deductive, as advised by Albert David (1999). We therefore adopt an abductive exploratory approach. Abduction is defined as ‘an operation that, given that it does not belong to logic, makes it possible to escape the chaotic perception that we have of the real-world through an inference on the relationship that actually exists between things…. Abduction is to draw observations from a supposition that must then be tested and discussed’ (Koenig, 1993: 7). The three proposals put forward in this research appear in the body of text as the theoretical elements that back them up are developed. However, they are very much the result of a long process consisting of a great deal of cross-checking of the theory and practice in the field. Moreover, a mirror effect appears in the results section, itself structured around the answers to these three proposals. Thus, on the basis of the qualitative analysis of the case of the ‘Picasso-Aix 2009’ season (Section 2), the results, organized around the three research proposals, make it possible to highlight the conditions required for the successful production of a cultural event under direct control (Section 3).

Designing and implementing a cultural event: from the organization to the territory

The review of the literature, accompanied by a presentation of three research proposals, puts the ephemeral nature of the happening into a new context, that of the concept of territorial sustainability. The analytical approach is thus built around three components: the phase involving the formulation and design of the cultural strategy (P1), the impacts of an organization under public control² on the internal management of the public organization behind the project (P2) and the structuring of an effective system of territorial governance around the project (P3).

The cultural event as a medium-term goal of territorial strategy

This research is in line with studies examining strategic territorial management (Decoutère et al., 1996; Divay and Mazouz, 2008; Hernandez, 2008). The changes currently taking place in various areas of local life (and in particular the French territorial reform currently under way³) is one of the turning points in the profession of the local decision-makers, who are increasingly leaning towards strategic thinking. At the heart of this new management,⁴ the concept of territorial strategic intent emerges (Hernandez, 2008). Far from a simple extrapolation of the present, strategic intent (Hamel and Prahalad, 1989) enables the organization to plan for the future, to think about the future it wants, and about what it aspires to become. ‘Territorializing’ this concept means taking into account the specificities of the territory and managing the duality that exists between the context and the action (Hernandez, 2008).

However, the policy process is not limited to the final stage, which is the strategic intent. This aim is underpinned by the determation of milestones. Thus, while ‘the visions of fairly comparable cities are also quite similar in their broad outlines’ (Divay and Mazouz, 2008: 342), the intermediate objectives they set for themselves to achieve their strategic intent vary according to the players and the specificities of the territory. Some will thus choose to implement a specific cultural event to which they will attribute territorial development functions.

An event planned with a defined beginning and end and implemented for a specific purpose (assigned goals), the cultural event thus raises the question of the ephemeral/sustainable dialectic. Ephemeral in its existence, it can nevertheless produce lasting impacts on the territory (Gravari-Barbas and Jacquot, 2007: 2). It differs from other events through the very presence of artistic creation (creation/distribution) and refers to a narrow definition of ‘cultural’ understood as an industry,⁵ thereby excluding religious, traditional or folk events. The cultural event is finally characterized by a dual problem of territorial development and the local anchoring of the action. It thus confirms the role of culture in terms of sustainable development (externalities of culture) while mobilizing it as a medium to give meaning to the territory and set it apart from others.

In a functional approach to events, we can consider that there is a typology ranging from a small local event to the mega-happening built around the functions assigned to each of them. As part of this research, it is worth focusing for a moment on the ‘flagship event’. The latter is defined as a single or recurrent major event (fair, exhibition, cultural and sports event, etc.), limited in time and implemented in a territory mainly to ‘improve the visibility, appeal and profitability of a tourist destination’ (Getz, 2005). This ‘specific tourism product’ (Hall and Page, 2009) has such importance in terms of attractiveness, quality and advertising that it offers a real competitive advantage for the territory (Hall, 1989; Ritchie, 1984).

P1. To participate in the reinforcement of the sustainable attractiveness of a territory, the cultural event must be part of a territorial strategic process as an medium-term goal.

The implementation of a cultural event under direct control: a revolution in management practices

The development and implementation of a cultural event is part of what some call cultural engineering.⁶ This approach needs to be resituated in the French economic and institutional context. In France, culture is in fact a ‘constitutional right’ and the cultural industry is the subject of significant public sector subsidies and regulation. Culture is a part of public property in that it is a source of multiple positive externalities for individuals, businesses and the territories as a whole (Abbing, 1980; Greffe, 2006, Heilbrun and Gray, 2001). It is therefore accepted that this activity should be supported, ensured or controlled by the government (state, devolved and decentralized authorities). Due to the specific characteristics inherent to the cultural field, this control is complex. The majority of cultural production is the result, not of the public sector, but of the private sector (companies or not-for-profit associations). However, it is clear that the high level of subsidies, involving precise specifications, makes it possible to steer the direction of the industry’s activity to some degree.

Moreover, the choice of methods for managing public service largely determines the role and autonomy of the organizations behind cultural projects (direct control, self-governance, public institutions, public service delegation to a private organization, etc.). In the case of the ‘Picasso-Aix 2009’ season, we are talking of an operation under public control. A public service is said to be under direct control when a public person is in charge of its management with due consideration for all the risks associated with such an operation (financial, human, logistic, etc.). In other words, under direct control, the public authority itself is in charge of the management of the public service, with its own technical, human and financial means and has neither specific organs nor legal personality (Article L.2221-8 of the CGCT).

Finally, the ephemeral and rare nature of the event and its cultural nature raise questions about the method of management of the everyday operations of a public authority and call for the renewal of managerial practices and procedures (Koenig, 2006). ‘Putting together an organization for creative purposes requires the adoption of management and behavioural rules that differ from those generally used in regular production’ (Benghozi, 2006: 3).

P2. The implementation of a cultural event calls for a renewal of the day-to-day management methods of the public organization behind the project.

The need to establish a system of territorial governance for sustainable territorial attractiveness

Many studies have therefore shown that behind the political and strategic choices made in the field of culture and events, it is very much the attractiveness of the territory that is at stake and thus its market positioning (Greffe, 2006). However, these studies generally tend to favour the purely economic or marketing dimension (economic attractiveness) that mainly targets the short-term attraction of flows from outside the territory. It therefore appears to be necessary to put the analysis of cultural event strategies in a new context in terms of a concern for sustainable development of territorial attractiveness, that is to say in a multidimensional reading of the impact of the actions implemented (see Table 1).

Table 1.

Framework of analysis for sustainable\territorial attractiveness. Adapted from Soldo (2010)

Evaluated criterion of territorial attractiveness	Definition of the criterion	Expected impact of the cultural strategies
Political dimension	Long-term nature of the action or of the public policy adopted Sustainable nature of the governance system	Long-term nature of the general interest mission/ Continuity of the local policies in the past and future Coherence of these policies/Legitimacy of the political action Effects on local governance (emergence of new players, partnerships, appropriation of the action by the stakeholders, etc.)
Economic dimension	Sustainable nature of the economic development model chosen	Direct economic effects and spillover effects of the funds injected locally Effects on the territorial capacity for innovation and creativity, creative industries, industrial strategies Marketing of the territory and external attractiveness (population, companies, tourism)
Social and civic dimension	Strengthening of social cohesion Improvement of quality of life	Social attractiveness: • Structuring of the social ties and territorial solidarity • Training of human capital Attractiveness in civic terms: • Development of the territorial heritage/Improvement of the quality of life • Sense of belonging, development of the territory: identity and federation of the players • Local democracy, citizenship: satisfaction of users and local rooting of the action

It seems obvious that if the goal is multidimensional attractiveness, the public support of the project must be accompanied by a real investment and integration of the territorial stakeholders involved in the project, in particular the political players, the cultural players, local businesses and residents.

The cultural event therefore implies the establishment of territorial governance, to ‘create the territories as collective players’ (Le Galès, 2006: 10) and ‘manage specific activities, having their own logic, in conjunction with multiple partners’ (Benghozi, 2006: 3). With this aim, partnerships ‘open up promising perspectives for future governance that would establish a culture of convergence and multiple complementarities between the public and the private’ (Sedjari, 2005: 17). It is essential to understand that it is not the partnership itself that determines good governance but the players who take hold and take ownership of it. This partnership then invokes the positive potential and facilitates innovation and experimentation within the territory.

However, in a system where various decision-making levels overlap,⁷ the hybridization of rules and negotiation are essential. It is necessary to invent new methods of articulation and control (Vion and Le Galès, 1998), new places for dialogue, new techniques for action and decision-making, as well as new processes, in order to maintain stability and the development of the territory (Leloup et al., 2005: 327). In other words, the aim is to highlight the relationships between the various players involved in the creation of a cultural project in a given space. The emergence of collective dynamics is then largely dependent on the ability of the territorial players to think outside their reference system to take into account the objectives and values of the partners (Casteigts, 2003).

P3. When set as a medium-term goal, the cultural event requires collective mobilization of the project’s stakeholders.

Manual content analysis for the processing of a unique and exemplary case study

It is now time to come back to the methodological aspects of this research.

It is necessary, first, to redefine the methodological issues of the single case study (2.1). The exemplary nature of the case of the ‘Picasso-Aix 2009’ season will then be highlighted (2.2). Finally, the qualitative approach will be explained and defended (2.3).

Methodological issues of the single case study

‘In abstract terms, we can define a case as a given phenomenon that occurs in a defined context’ (Miles and Huberman, 2003: 55) by temporality and space. The case study is ‘an empirical research that investigates a contemporary phenomenon in a real context, … and in which multiple empirical sources are mobilised’ (Yin, 2003: 25).

There are different forms of case study (Yin, 2003). The choice has been made here to work on a single case (a holistic approach), ‘noting that the presentation of the particularity of a context, the narration of a rich and unique history is likely to increase the demonstrative force’ (Evrard et al., 2009: 134). Indeed, the single case study allows an in-depth ethnographic approach and facilitates the immersion of the researcher into the study. It also helps to confirm, challenge or extend an existing theory and to work on a revealing case. However, the presentation of the ‘Picasso-Aix 2009’ cultural season gives us a glimpse into the main points of the exemplary nature of the case.

The ‘Picasso-Aix 2009’ case: the Community of Pays d’Aix in charge of the cultural season⁸

The CPA, established in January 2001, now has 34 member municipalities and more than 350,000 inhabitants. Located on the outskirts of Marseille, it is through its cultural policy that it stands out from neighbouring territories (see Appendix 1). Indeed, the relationship between Aix-en-Provence and Marseille has always been marked by conflict, fuelled by different positions and territorial images that are miles apart. Yet, in the run-up to the mega-event ‘Marseille Provence, European Capital of Culture’, collaboration seems to be emerging between the two territories.

After the renovation of the Granet Museum and the success of the exhibition ‘Cézanne in Provence’ which attracted 450,000 visitors in 2006, the CPA organized, in cooperation with the Réunion des Musées Nationaux (RMN), the exhibition ‘Picasso- Cézanne’ (which attracted 371,936 visitors).

Around the central exhibition, the ‘Picasso-Aix 2009’ season celebrated the fiftieth anniversary of the installation of Picasso on Cézanne’s turf, in the Vauvenargues Castle, at the foot of the Sainte-Victoire (a mountain that has forged the identity of the Provencal landscape and that of Aix). Sixty-three events on the theme of the relationship between the two painters were funded and labelled the ‘Picasso-Aix’ season. The château where Picasso settled in 1959, boasting that he had bought ‘Sainte-Victoire by Cezanne’, thus opened its doors to the public for the first time in the spring. To involve a wider audience in this event, the Granet Museum hosted the multimedia trail ‘Picasso-Métamorphoses’ and a partnership was established with the Academy of Aix-Marseille, giving birth to nearly 200 school projects. Finally, many cultural players in the Pays d’Aix rallied together to pay tribute to a Pablo Picasso seduced by Cézanne, the only one of his masters he called ‘Sir’.

This cultural season, with a total budget of 6 million (15 percent was private sponsorship) can be considered a major event. The main exhibition ‘Picasso-Cézanne’ was the fourth-ranked exhibition in France in 2009 in terms of visitors and the first ranking in the provinces. As for the cultural season, it welcomed over one million visitors, 29 percent of whom were foreign tourists. In terms of management, this event was not outsourced but came under the direct control of the CPA. All of the territorial departments were involved in the project, even though their day-to-day management tasks continued. The departments of culture (including the Granet Museum) and communication were naturally the driving forces, but many other departments provided support (accounting, IT, human resources, transport, etc.).

The exemplary nature of the case is expressed first and foremost through the strategic goals set in advance by the Public Establishment for Intercommunal Cooperation for this ‘flagship event’. Furthermore, the implementation of the event under the direct control of an intercommunal body and the extension of the system of governance around the project make it possible to examine the question of the organizational and territorial issues mentioned. Thus, this case seems to be exemplary in order to come up with a range of generic and scalable managerial recommendations that determine the success of a territorial cultural project taken up by a local authority under direct control.

From data collection to content analysis

While the evaluation on which this article is based mobilized a mixed methodology, only qualitative data were used for analysis.

When putting together the sample, two types of players were targeted, the players behind the project as well as (institutional and private) partners that have contributed to the rollout of the project (see Appendix 2). Sixty-five semi-structured interviews were conducted, lasting from 45 minutes to one-and-a-half hours each, over a period of one year (April 2009–May 2010). These interviews were transcribed in full. To highlight the differences in the data and pluralism of views, it was necessary to vary the viewing context. For this, special care was taken to interview persons throughout the territory of the CPA, and to vary the types of structures surveyed (size, legal status, mission/object) and the functions of the interviewees (artists, administrators, technicians, politicians, general public, etc.). More specifically, the final sample of respondents was hinged around the following criteria: the status of the structure and thus its mission, and the geographical location and the level of participation in the project and the degree of involvement of the player.

In terms of content analysis, to the extent that the coding is subject to the interpretation of the researcher, the metaphor of ‘methodological tinkering’ can be used to describe the process used (Allard-Poesi, 2003). The expression ‘tinkering’ refers in fact to the considerable degree of inventiveness and therefore freedom offered to the researcher. While this idea of ‘tinkering’ is often pointed out by critics of qualitative methodology, this process serves a very specific purpose: to participate in ‘a process of problematization’ (Allard-Poesi, 2011: 4).

Given that no software can interpret the data in place of the researcher (Bourdon, 2000; Van der Maren, 1997), despite the arguments in favour of these ‘practical’ tools, the coding was done manually (Wanlin, 2007). The authors chose a semi-structured coding grid, put together on the basis of the literature and highlighting the main themes of the interview guide (see Appendix 2). Beyond these predefined categories, manual coding facilitated the development of many other categories. This content analysis thus gave rise to the research proposals contained in the literature review and discussed in the results below.

Strategic and managerial steps that determine sustainable territorial attractiveness

The results are organized around the three main proposals in the literature. The critical analysis of the actions implemented during the ‘Picasso-Aix 2009’ event reveals the main conditions of success required by a cultural event under direct control.

In favour of a functional approach to cultural events

It appears that the nature of the cultural event largely determines the objectives assigned to it. The ‘Picasso-Aix 2009’ cultural season is a flagship event around which a cultural strategy was built with a very strong ‘marketing’ focus.

Table 2 shows that the choice of the ‘Picasso-Aix in 2009’ event is relevant. The relevance of this action is validated in terms of three main arguments. First, the cultural policy is an optional skill of the intercommunality, both with respect to the cultural institutions that are present in the territory and with respect to the involvement of a large number of cultural actors, the support and the intervention of the CPA appear to be essential. Second, local initiatives were gradually structured, particularly around the CPA which is positioned as a leader. Third, this recent coherence in cultural initiatives gradually gives the territory status as a place of culture and creation, which makes it all the more attractive. Based on these observations, it is possible to identify three generic key success factors that focus on the need for territorial strategic diagnostics, the positioning of the project leader and the clarity of the public action rolled out.

Table 2.

The cultural event, intermediate objective of the territorial strategy

Issue⁹	Observations emerging from the case of the CPA	Generic key success factors¹⁰
P1. The cultural event must be part of a territorial strategic process as an intermediate objective Part 1: formulation and design of the strategy
Relevance of a public initiative in the cultural field	* Renowned cultural institutions present in the territory * Need for a public leader who coordinates the initiatives throughout the territory: competent intercommunal level * A territory of culture and creation: attractiveness	* Diagnose the territory’s cultural resources * Clearly position the project carrier as a cultural producer * Make legible local cultural policy and existing initiatives
Coherence and legitimacy of the cultural strategy with regard to the territorial strategy on the whole	* A double legitimacy of the event that must have an international outlook yet have local territorial roots: * In the continuity of the local policies, past (Cézanne 2006) and present (Marseille Provence Capital of Culture in 2013) * Application of a national project in the provinces * Recognition of the Granet Museum as a key territorial player * Exceptional opening of the Château de Vauvenargues	* Clearly show the overall territorial strategy (past, present and future development path) * Diagnose the cultural offers proposed by the other territories * Clearly define the aims and objectives assigned to the cultural strategy * Build on the cultural resources specific to the territory
Effectiveness of the cultural event as an intermediate objective	* Prestigious event with a high degree of visibility * An event that conveys values and the creation of meaning * An event that helps reinforce a territorial identity (thematic season and label)	* Design an external marketing strategy and ensure the availability of the necessary competencies and know-how * Design an internal (organization) and relational (with the stakeholders) marketing strategy * Take into account the territorial identity in the choice of the event (theme, label, character, etc.)

Another challenge of the strategic part lies in the coherence and legitimacy of the strategy built around the cultural event. The latter is questioned through a logic of continuity with other actions. This continuity is first of all related to time. The ‘Picasso-Aix 2009’ season is the second flagship event of the Aix cultural strategy. Along the same lines as ‘Cézanne 2006’, this event forms part of the projects paving the way for ‘Marseille Provence 2013, European Capital of Culture’. Gradually, the cultural strategy is oriented around the three-year renewal of listed events. Second, the continuity is part of a spatial logic. The legitimacy of the event at local level is high (rooting) and is also relayed at the national and international levels (boost to tourism and media coverage of the territory and the Granet museum). Third, the anchoring of the event that builds on the heritage resources (places and people) is highlighted. The project has been designed in line with the characteristics and resources of the territory. Thus, if in 2006 Cézanne’s studio was the central ‘key place’ of the project, the Picasso season was built around the Château de Vauvenargues where the painter lived. This makes us recommend a true strategic approach of benchmarking and then of differentiation which is anchored in the territory by highlighting its specific resources, heritage in particular.

Finally, in a functional approach to the territorial portfolio of cultural events, it is necessary to question the effectiveness of the cultural season studied as an intermediate objective. In fact, the choice of producing a ‘flagship’ event helps to significantly increase the external attractiveness of the territory in a marketing sense. Due to the strong presence of the theme, the event also reinforces the territorial identity. It contributes to the symbolic construction of the territory, underpinned by the specific elements of its heritage and natural environment. Based on these observations, it appears that the success of this type of approach depends on the (internal and external) marketing strategy implemented and consideration for the territorial identity in the approach taken.

The need to renew management within the administrative services

Table 3 highlights the necessary renewal of managerial practices and methods involved in cultural production under direct control. The CPA has chosen to internalize the mission that underpins the project which in fact participates directly in this process of change. Therefore, the adaptation of the structure, of the method of human resources management and of the tools used becomes a necessity.

Table 3.

The project as an internal management tool

Issue	Observations emerging from the case of the CPA	Generic key success factors
P2. The cultural event needs to renew managerial practices and methods internal to the public organization behind the project. Part 2: internal operation
Adaptation of the management structure	* Transversality of the management method (many services mobilized) * Extended project group for convergence and circulation of the information/Reduced group created in the spring of 2009	* In the case of an internal mission: break down the barriers between departments * Favour a modular pilot structure that ensures both the efficiency of decision-making and the circulation of information
Adaptation of the human resource management method	* Shortage of experts compared with the mission dedicated to ‘Cézanne en Provence’ * Dysfunctions in the late recruitment drive: lack of skills and know-how * Problems of positioning between the departments and the hierarchy (atmosphere, legitimacy, recognition, delegation)	* Diagnose the needs in terms of expertise, skills and know-how * Anticipate the necessary recruitments and/or training courses * Define the project leadership and set a clear hierarchical line in order to establish the roles and missions of the different departments
Adaptation of the management tools	* Development of the communication and reporting tools and procedures * Appearance of tools obtained from project management, encouraging the mobilization and pooling of resources (budgetary, logistic, etc.)	* Set up the management tools that ensure good internal communication * Invest in tools appropriate to project management (accounting software, dashboards, etc.)

Two key aims need to be met in terms of management structure: the need to establish a transversal working method and the creation of a project group. There is still room for improvement in the historically silo-based working methods of the local authorities in terms of networking even if the internalization of the ‘Picasso-Aix 2009’ mission forced the different departments of the CPA to work together and coordinate their actions. Furthermore, the implementation in plenary form or in small groups, of a project group meeting on a weekly basis, provided some convergence, a pooling. The players are not always in a straight line, and for them it is necessary that ‘the discussion is relayed’. Two groups can be distinguished, however: those who are results-driven (reference group – the ‘core’) and those who are waiting (extended committee). Based on these observations two recommendations emerge. It is necessary to make the transversality process more natural by involving all relevant services in the project and organizing time for reflection and joint working. To respond to this logic, creating a project group that is flexible according to the different times of the decision and the action, similar to that set up by the CPA in spring 2009, appears to be effective.

Regarding the management of human resources, a number of observations can be made. First, a lack of internal expertise is identified. This leads to an overall negative feeling in certain services to which no legitimacy was granted because they do not have the status of experts or the required experience (e.g. the communication department). In addition, major malfunctions appear in terms of recruitment, as the CPA had not sufficiently anticipated needs. Finally, dispersion of responsibility (expanded project group) and lack of leadership positioning generated tensions and decision times that are too long. These observations give rise to several recommendations. Starting from the project design phase, it is necessary to diagnose human resources needs. When the know-how, skills and knowledge are not available internally, it is necessary to conduct a recruitment drive well in advance. Finally, the leadership of the project and the roles and missions assigned to different administrative departments must be clear to avoid a loss of efficiency in implementation.

Regarding the issue of management tools, it appears that the use of communication and reporting tools is developing between departments. For example, many meetings are the subject of a report with a statement of the decisions and email and phone are frequently used to refer to specific problems. On the other hand, management tools and specific project management software is implemented. They promote the pooling and mobilization of resources while ensuring greater efficiency in their allocation within the project. Despite the developments observed, the tools developed remain, however, embryonic to encourage networking in management. Thus, developing communication tools based on data sharing and interactivity (such as collaborative platforms, open data, etc.) would greatly improve the transparency and the wealth of information internally. Finally, standardizing support management tools (accounting software, dashboards, etc.) would promote the consistency of the actions implemented.

A strategy for integrating stakeholders

The production of a cultural event requires collective action in the territories. The different stakeholders should be involved: territorial politicians, cultural structures, financial partners, residents or traders. There are therefore several levels of reading as presented in Table 4 (Stratum 1: The institutional sphere. Stratum 2: The cultural sphere. Stratum 3: All of the stakeholders).

Table 4.

A territorial governance system favourable to the emergence of sustainable territorial attractiveness

Issue	Observations emerging from the case of the CPA	Generic key success factors
P3. The cultural event requires a collective action of the territory. Part 3: external operation
Stratum 1: the institutional sphere	* Desire for geographical and political enlargement of the cultural strategy throughout the CPA, but lack of relays among the communal services * Reinforcement of links with the institutional environment: la Réunions des Musées Nationaux within the framework of the central exhibition, the General Council and the Regional Council: within the framework of labellized projects	* Bring in the elected officials of the different territorial authorities concerned with the implementation of the project from its inception * Formalize solid and committed partnerships with the institutional players
Stratum 2: the cultural sphere	* Artistic theme of the federating event (network of small players: ‘territorial net’) * Cultural offerings that invigorated all of the territory * Development of the labelling process of the projects * Qualitative differential in the labelled artistic offerings * Lack of visibility of the cultural players other than the museum and Château	* Design and propose a strong artistic theme that all the cultural players can take on board * Identify and mobilize the cultural players in the entire territory * Design incentive practices and tools (participation in a group, financial incentive, etc.) * Give recognition and visibility to all of the cultural players involved in the production of the project
Stratum 3: all of the stakeholders	* Formalization of a few partnerships but global lack of sustainability in the networks created * Lack of integration of the socio-cultural players in the project * Setting up of support, training and information tools for the attention of the different stakeholders (sponsors, traders, teaching establishments, visitors, etc.) * Setting up of an evaluation of the socioeconomic impacts that allowed information to be passed up from the field and recommendations for a readjustment of future action	* Make the ephemeral sustainable: establish framework agreements that can be reactivated for each operation * Give the priority to the stakeholders in line with their influence on the achievement of the project objectives * Propose support, training and information tools to the different stakeholders * Set up an evaluation ‘as you go along’ with cognitive and steering aims

As regards the institutional partners, the event has undeniable positive repercussions. Promoting the ‘Picasso-Aix’ season around the main exhibition at the Granet Museum allows the spread of cultural interests throughout the entire CPA and integrates different venues and operators with respect to their added value for the territory. However, the lack of information relayed from the communal services sometimes hampered the desire to ‘invigorate’ the territory. In addition, this event builds on existing relationships with institutional partners from different territorial levels (Réunions des Musées Nationaux for the coproduction of the exhibition, Departments and Territory for the labelling and subsidizing of cultural players). These observations prompt us to emphasize two essential conditions for group action: the involvement of local officials in the project from its design as well as the formalization of partnerships with key institutional players.

The crystallization of the season around a unifying cultural theme is very positive in terms of cultural governance. The whole of the CPA territory is invigorated by the events. This demonstrates the enthusiasm of the cultural players who wanted to be active, participate, decide, ‘be part of it’. However, this willingness to participate, this proliferation of projects put forward for labelling must be controlled. The whole challenge of the labelling process is effectively to create excitement around this issue and to promote the emergence and integration of key players. But it must be possible to ensure the coherence of all the listed events in terms of quality and in terms of visibility. It appears that the choice of the theme of the event is important. Then the integration of the local pool of cultural players can only take place after a territorial diagnosis that allows the identification of these players. Their participation depends largely on the implementation of incentives. Finally, concerning the communication campaign, it is essential to ensure equity in terms of visibility to all players involved.

Regarding the management of the stakeholders, it is observed that there has been the creation of some short-term partnerships between cultural structures, the formalization or even reactivation of some collaboration (e.g. media partnerships), but that there has been no real sustainability. Different players have felt that they passed up the opportunity for a fully-fledged territorial project. To go further, it even appears that players who are essential in the implementation of such a project have not been brought on board (the social centres in particular), due to lack of funding, of coordination between structures, of communication and information. And yet, notable efforts have been pinpointed in terms of provision of support tools, training and information for traders as well as the teaching staff of participating schools. For example, 500 teaching kits were made available to traders and teachers. Finally, the role of the evaluation ‘in mid-flight’ in terms of transparency of the public action rolled out is noteworthy. In addition to support tools and the evaluation process which appear to be effective levers of territorial governance tools, two recommendations can be added. First, it is necessary to insist on the formalization and consolidation of partnerships. A tool could be implemented: the framework agreement that commits the partners over several years while allowing marginal adjustments (riders). Finally, a diagnosis of all stakeholders is required. This should make it possible to identify priority partners in that they are directly involved in the achievement of the project objectives.

Conclusion

The CPA, which first opted for autonomous control (a mission outsourced outside the traditional hierarchical administrative system for ‘Cezanne 2006’), finally turned towards a direct control to manage the ‘Picasso-Aix 2009’ event. While it involves much greater internal management, operation under direct control grants, however, a stronger power of decision and action to the public authority in charge of the project. This management method can also be an accelerator of learning and change in administrative bureaucracies historically working in closed silos, but that are moving more and more towards project management that is more open to the territory and potential partners. The managerial contributions of this article, clearly oriented towards public leaders of cultural projects, thus appear in this context, to be crucial in order to provide the keys to the public management of cultural events rooted in the territory. As such, it seems worthwhile to mention a line of research towards the portfolio of cultural events available to the territories. Indeed, from the small local event to the mega-event, the expectations in terms of impacts as well as management methods will be extremely disparate. It is therefore appropriate to question the various elements of this portfolio in an approach that makes comparisons according to the scale of the event, and in an overall strategic approach to the portfolio. Indeed, each cultural event is unique, and analysing one single event cannot lead to generalization of the results. Further study of cases of cultural events and the implementation of a confirmatory quantitative method appear to be a necessary research perspective to overcome the limitations of this study. In addition, each territory has specific resources and local public action methods that are particular to it. Thus, the analysis of the strategy of cultural events within the Community of Pays d’Aix applies to a single territory and context. Beyond the analysis of a territorial portfolio, an inter-territorial comparison would also strengthen the validity of the results.

Finally, if this article has focused on one of the methods of public service management (direct control), it should be noted that within the framework of the organization of a cultural event public support can take other forms. It would therefore be interesting to propose a comparative analysis that makes it possible to highlight the key differences in terms of cultural event management.

Footnotes

Notes

Edina Soldo is a Lecturer in Management Sciences at the Institute of Public Management at the University of Aix-Marseille. She leads the Masters in the Management of Cultural Organizations and Events. An active researcher within the Public Management team of the Centre for Management Studies and Research of the University of Aix-Marseille (CERGAM), her specialist field is the evaluation of public actions with particular focus on culture and the sustainable development of the territories. In addition to her academic work, she is in charge of different processes designed to evaluate territorial cultural activities.

Charlène Arnaud is a Lecturer in Management Sciences at the Graduate School of Management ISM, University of Versailles Saint-Quentin. As part of the LAREQUOI Public Management team, her work focuses on the territorial cultural events portfolio from the point of view of functional and dynamic strategies. Her research is more broadly based on issues of strategy and territorial governance, at the heart of which the cultural event becomes a fully-fledged strategic tool. Parallel to her doctoral work, she has participated in the various processes developed to evaluate cultural events lead by Edina Soldo and Olivier Keramidas.

Olivier Keramidas is a Lecturer in Management Sciences at the Institute of Public Management of the University of Aix-Marseille. He is deputy director. An active researcher within the CERGAM’s Public Management team, his work is anchored in the strategy around the debate on ethics and fairness in public management. In addition to his academic work, he leads various evaluative procedures.

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