Determinants of perceived integration among Chinese migrant mothers living in low-income communities of Hong Kong: Implications for social service practitioners

Abstract

With visions of a better life through transnational marriage, women immigrants are often quickly disappointed when they are faced with social isolation as a result of heavy household responsibilities. The current study investigates 506 Chinese migrant mothers living in areas of concentrated poverty in Hong Kong. Using path analysis the study examines how several exogenous variables, such as marital contentment, household finances, and social support, predict perceived integration into the host society, and how hope for a better future might mediate the relationship between these variables and perceived integration. The results of the study have implications for social service practice in low-income neighborhoods.

Keywords

China Hong Kong household finances low-income neighborhood marital contentment social support women immigrants

The 1995 agreement between the Hong Kong government and Beijing, which established a quota of 150 one-way exit permits per day, marked the beginning of a constant flow of immigrants from China to Hong Kong. One of the consequences of this immigration policy was the expansion of the marriage market for Hong Kongers. Statistics show that, in 2006, 36 percent of marriages in Hong Kong involved partners who were mainland residents (HKCSS, 2006). In most of these cross-border marriages, the groom was a Hong Kong resident of low socio-economic status (Kung et al., 2004). Since many Chinese women want to come to Hong Kong to join their husbands, most new arrivals are female (62.2% in 1996; 66.9% in 2001; 69.3% in 2006) (SSS, 2006). Statistics also show that the experiences of these new arrivals are markedly different from those of local women: they are more likely to have children,¹ be married to a much older man,² be relatively uneducated,³ and suffer from poverty.⁴

Research conducted in Hong Kong has revealed the challenges faced by poor migrant women in adapting to a new social and cultural environment. They encounter discrimination by local people due to their place of origin and lower socio-economic status (Kung et al., 2004), and they are more likely to suffer from marital problems (Hung, 1999). Most receive little social support from their spouse, family, and friends, and are unwilling to seek professional help (Chiu, 2004).

In the broader literature of migrant studies, scholars generally refer to the ‘dashing of hopes’ of poor migrant wives and mothers. In a study of Hispanic families in the US, Cheong (2006) remarks that ‘[a] significant proportion of people migrate with visions of experiencing better political and economic circumstances, only to face growing ghettorization, isolation and cultural antipathies in their new setting’ (p. 370). Other scholars have observed that these women’s idealistic expectations of life in a new country are shattered when they try to contend with a difficult job market (De Jong and Madamba, 2001), reconcile work and household demands (Wall and José, 2004), assimilate with the host culture (Lin and Hung, 2007), gain access to necessary social services (Cheong, 2006), and find child care (Smith, 2002).

Such studies, however, rarely investigate the subjective aspirations of migrant mothers and their effects on perceived integration into the host society. Previous studies that pursued this line of inquiry concentrated on the experience of adolescent immigrants (Park and Sarkar, 2007; Yeh et al., 2008). One exception is Khan and Watson’s (2005) study of the migration experience of Pakistani women in Canada. The authors argue that many immigrants who had hoped for a better quality of life found their dreams dashed by poor job opportunities and culture shock.

This quantitative study represents an attempt to fill the gap in research on the experience of immigrant mothers. It focuses on Chinese migrant mothers who live in areas of concentrated poverty in Hong Kong. The study explores how exogenous variables, such as marital contentment, household finances, and social support, as well as several key demographic factors, predict perceived integration into the host society. Particular attention will be paid to the ways in which hope for a better future mediates the relationship between the exogenous factors and perceived integration.

Literature review

Marital quality

It is not surprising that marriages between local men and immigrant women experience tension arising from different ideologies, practices, and views of gender roles (Lee, 2005). Stressful experiences in a new society, particularly when accompanied by poverty, easily lead to marital conflict (Hyman et al., 2008). Jewkes (2002) found husbands may resort to domestic violence in response to perceived threats to their sense of superiority or their ability to control their wives.

Although there is no definitive proof that migration has a negative effect on marital contentment (Hyman et al., 2008; Levi-Wiesel and Kaufman, 2004), scholars generally agree that poor marital relations are likely to have an adverse effect on women immigrants’ outlook on life and their adaptation process. In her study of older immigrants in Canada, Cheung (2008) found that marriages characterized by mutual reliance and intimacy made integration into a new society easier. Lin and Hung (2007) maintain that emotional support and instrumental assistance from husbands and their family are the primary sources of support for women in transnational marriages. Levi-Wiesel and Kaufman (2004) show that in situations of unemployment and poverty, a good marital relationship can buffer the effects of stressful acculturation.

A thorough review of the literature supports the assumption that marital harmony contributes to migrant women’s satisfaction. Migrant mothers who have a happy marriage are more confident of their coping abilities, and thus aspire for a better future in the host community (Olson et al., 1989). However, a positive process of integration is not guaranteed. A study of new migrant mothers in Hong Kong confirms that many who had envisioned a happy marital life and that the process of assimilation would be easier actually experienced a deterioration of marital relations after immigration (CCC, 1999). We therefore hypothesize that marital contentment is conducive to both the sentiment of hope and perceived integration into the host society.

Household finances

Studies have shown that successful employment helps migrants identify with the host society (e.g. Bevelander, 2005); without work, migrants are likely to be socially excluded (Muller, 1993). Levi-Wiesel and Kaufman (2004) provide substantial evidence that unemployment increases the anxiety of immigrants even when they have a good marital relationship. Some scholars maintain that employment and financial security are the main concerns for adult immigrants on arrival in the host country (Portes and Rumbaut, 1996).

The financial situation for Chinese migrant mothers in Hong Kong is usually poor. Unlike professional migrants, they are unlikely to get high-paying jobs or to be able to afford cleaning and child-care services. Lacking family support networks and typically residing in remote residential areas, these mothers can only obtain employment in low-paying shift work. The burden of domestic chores makes it nearly impossible for these women to take full-time jobs. The research shows that migrant women are more likely than their male counterparts to experience severe unemployment and lack of job mobility (De Jong and Madamba, 2001).

Research on migrant mothers in Hong Kong attests that these trying circumstances inevitably crush these women’s hopes for improvement in their new lives. It is extremely difficult to find a job that allows them to work only during the hours that their children are in school. Once they have children, they must give up full-time jobs with higher salaries, and take up part-time, low-paying employment. Anxiety, hopelessness, and a sense of inferiority inhibit these mothers’ integration (Ho and Cheung, 2011a, forthcoming). We therefore hypothesize that unemployment (or underemployment), poverty, and insecure family income are key predictors of a migrant mother’s attitude toward the future and her perceived integration.

Social support

Scholars of migrant studies generally agree that social support is critical in determining employment status and integration (Fernandez et al., 2000).⁵ The concept of social capital has been used to explain a wide variety of individual and collective behavior. It has been shown to be a factor contributing to economic outcomes by creating and sustaining social relations and patterns of social organizations. The World Bank (2011) defines ‘social capital’ as ‘the institutions, relationships, and norms that shape the quality and quantity of a society’s social interactions . . . [and] the glue that holds . . . [these institutions] together’. Uphoff (2000) maintains that social capital has both cognitive and structural components. ‘Cognitive social capital’ refers to abstract ideas, such as norms, values, attitudes, and beliefs, and ‘structural social capital’, to more objective and visible institutions, and connections within and among social networks. Both types of social capital interact and reinforce each other, and together they facilitate individual and collective actions.

The present study considers these cognitive and structural components complementary. There is a conceptual difference between social capital and a social support network, however. The former describes the subjective impressions of social relationships on the part of an individual; the latter, the objective manifestations of these social relations. Studies on migrants agree on the positive effect of social support on employment prospects (Garcia-Ramirez et al., 2005) and community integration (Lynam, 1985). Immigrants without social support often have difficulty making the transition to a new culture (Morrison et al., 1997).

The migrant mothers who participated in the present study were accustomed to support from extended families and neighbors, and spacious living quarters in China. Arriving in Hong Kong, most were shocked by the fast pace of living and working environments (CCC, 1999). It is not surprising that poor migrant mothers require cognitive and structural support in order to tackle the stressful process of acculturation. In shorts, we hypothesize that social support is a key predictor of a migrant mother’s level of hope for the future and her perceived integration.

Demographic factors

In addition to the exogenous variables discussed above, certain demographic features of the informants, such as age and educational level, were considered associated with hope and perceived integration. Two specific demographic variables in particular – number of children and length of stay – have been found to be positively predictive of migrant mothers’ employment readiness and perceived integration in Hong Kong respectively (Ho and Cheung, 2011a, forthcoming)

Hope

Snyder (2002) has conducted a wide range of research on hope and other related concepts such as self-efficacy, optimism, and goal-oriented behavior. He maintains that there are three measures of hope: goals, pathways, and agency. To study individuals’ level of hope entails an understanding of their goal-setting, the path they envision from the past to future, and their perception of their ability to follow that path and achieve their goals. Similarly, Lazarus (2006) argues that hope signals a goal-oriented belief that improvement is possible. As hopeful thoughts are often translated into a willingness and capability to explore ways to achieve goals, hopeful individuals tend to have higher motivation and better problem-solving abilities than hopeless ones. Cavanaugh et al. (2011) suggest that hope is associated with mental exploration of novel situations. In the case of migrant mothers, an attitude of hopefulness and optimism is likely to mediate the relationship between exogenous variables (marital contentment, social support, household finances) and their goal (perceived integration). Ataca and Berry’s (2002) study on Turkish immigrants in Canada supports our hypothesis: it found that the more positive and optimistic immigrants felt about the future, the better they adapted to their new cultural milieu.

Our model

On the basis of the findings described above, we hypothesize that four variables – marital contentment, household finances, social support, and selected demographic factors – are predictive of Chinese migrant mothers’ level of hope and their perceived integration into Hong Kong society. We also hypothesize that hope will act as a mediating variable between these exogenous variables and the outcome variable. The specific operationalizations of the exogenous, mediating, and outcomes variables are explained in the following section, and the resulting model is illustrated in Figure 1.

Figure 1.

Conceptual model of the study.

Marital contentment

Rather than directly asking the respondents to rate their marital contentment, we adopted a lexical approach and asked them to rate four Chinese statements that are commonly used to describe a marital relationship. The first application of the lexical approach to Chinese relationships was conducted by Man and Bond (2005). The lexical approach relies on the fact that verbal symbols denote a significant social concept or process that is correlated with its utility in everyday life. It is a culturally sensitive approach, as the items used in the scale belong to the everyday discourse used to describe the minute details of a relationship in a particular culture (Chan and Ho, 2008).

Specifically, respondents were asked to rate the accuracy of the following four statements: ‘You and your husband talk to each other about everything’; ‘Your personality and your husband’s personality do not match’; ‘You and your husband understand each other’s needs and help each other’; and ‘You and your husband communicate adequately.’ The scores range from 1 (‘disagree strongly’) to 5 (‘agree strongly’). In subsequent analysis, the scores of item (2) and (4) were reversed.

Household finances

The respondents’ perception of their household finances was measured by three variables: their subjective evaluation of job prospects, their income, and the perceived stability of their income.

The subjective evaluation of employment prospects was measured by their degree of ‘job readiness’ (Garcia-Ramirez et al., 2005). Respondents reported that they were ‘employed’, ‘unemployed but actively/very actively seeking a job’, or ‘unemployed without very actively/actively seeking a job’ and were coded as 2, 1, and 0, respectively.

In assessing income, respondents who reported a median household income of less than half of the Hong Kong median (i.e. less than HK$5000) or whose family included at least one member receiving Comprehensive Social Security Assistance (CSSA)⁶ were coded as ‘poor’ (1 = yes; 0 = no).

To determine the perceived stability of household finances, the respondents were asked, ‘To what extent do you think that your family finances are stable?’. The answers were rated 3 for ‘stable/very stable’, 2 for ‘partially stable’, and 1 for ‘unstable/very unstable’.

Social support

Social support was measured in terms of social capital and social support networks. In order to measure social capital, we concentrated on ‘social cohesion’, that is, the attitudes of the respondents toward interpersonal relationships in their neighborhood. We used three statements, formulated by Brisson and Usher (2007),⁷ to measure social cohesion. The participants were asked to rate the accuracy of the following: ‘I live in a close-knit neighborhood’; ‘People in my neighborhood are willing to help neighbors’; and ‘People in my neighborhood generally don’t get along with each other.’ The ratings ranged from 1 (‘disagree strongly’) to 5 (‘agree strongly’). In the analysis, the scores for the third statement were reversed.

To measure their social support network, the respondents were asked how many friends, neighbors, or relatives they would expect to help them in the following three situations: to share feelings (emotional support); to take care of children temporarily (instrumental support); and to provide a loan when necessary (financial support). The scores ranged from 0 for none, 1 for one, 2 for two, 3 for three, and 4 for more than three.

Demographic factors

Respondents were asked the year of their migration to Hong Kong to determine length of residence. They were also asked their age, educational level, and number of children. All these factors were defined as continuous variables, except educational level which was defined as an ordinal variable.

Hope and perceived integration

A caveat must be registered here for the operationalization of the concept of hope. Previous studies have measured hope by means of lengthy questionnaires and complicated theoretical self-analyses. Our pilot tests with our respondents indicated that such measurements were inappropriate. Based on the literature on hope, we defined it for the purposes of our study as the respondents’ anticipation of substantial improvement in their family’s quality of life, and operationalized it with a single question: ‘To what extent do you agree or disagree that there will be a significant improvement in the quality of life of your family in ten years’ time?’ The ratings ranged from 1 (‘disagree strongly’) to 5 (‘agree strongly’).

Levels of perceived integration were measured by the respondents’ reply to the following question: ‘To what extent do you agree or disagree that you are a Hong Konger?’ The ratings ranged from 1 (‘disagree strongly’) to 5 (‘agree strongly’).

Sampling procedure

The mothers in the study were selected using a multi-stage sampling procedure. Two secondary schools located in three low-income communities in Hong Kong were randomly selected.⁸ The school administration was then asked to help identify potential respondents through the students. The mothers received information about the study and an invitation to take part in it from their children, and completed the self-administered survey. Since we were targeting mothers of younger children (under 13), we concentrated on the lower grades of the school. The response rate was 80.6 percent.

Data analysis

A path analysis model based on the conceptual model in Figure 1 was tested using AMOS11. Since individual items in the measures of marital contentment, social capital, and social support might have specific implications for social service practice, we used individual items, rather than groupings of composite variables, in the analysis.⁹

To assess the tenability of the tested model, several commonly used goodness-of-fit indices were adopted, including CMIN/d.f., the robust CFI, RMSEA, GFI, AGFI, and NFI.¹⁰

Results

Descriptive analysis

Descriptive statistics of the key variables are shown in Table 1. The participants were 506 migrant mothers ranging in age from 20 to 56 years (M = 41.27 years, SD = 5.31). They had, on average, more than two children (2.23) and over half (51.84%) had at least one child younger than 13. Only 16.60 percent had graduated from high school or a post-secondary institution. The participants described their household finances as unstable (mean score = 1.99) and their job readiness as poor (mean score = 2.30), and, not surprisingly, over four-fifths (86.0%) reported to be living in poverty. Most migrant mothers in the sample were relatively recent arrivals (the average length of stay in Hong Kong was 10.5 years), and 64.0 percent came to Hong Kong in or after 1997. Their degree of marital contentment was moderate, with the average scores for the four measures ranging from 3.3 to 3.7 (max. score = 5). Their level of social support seemed insufficient: the average scores for the three perceived social support measures ranged from 2.3 to 3.5 (max. score = 5), and those for the three social support network measures ranged from 1.6 to 2.8 (max. score = 4). The participants also expressed moderate levels of hope and perceived integration: the average scores were 3.6 and 3.7, respectively (max. score = 5).

Table 1.

Descriptive statistics of key variables and their correlations.

		M	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	9	10	11	12	13	14	15	16	17	18
Marital quality	1) Talk about things	3.30	–
	2) Personality match	3.38	.33**	–
	3) Mutual understanding	3.63	.61**	.25**	–
	4) Adequate communication	3.74	.40**	.67**	.35**	–
Household finances	5) Financial stability	1.99	.22**	.14**	.15**	.14**	–
	6) Job readiness	2.30	.05	.01	–.10*	.04	–.06	–
	7) Poverty (%)	85.97%	–.03	.02	–.05	–.00	–.09	–.03	–
Social support	8) Perceived closeness	3.41	.09*	.00	.11*	.04	.12**	–.05	.05	–
	9) Perceived helpfulness	3.51	.05	–.01	.08	.02	.07	–.04	.05	.56**	–
	10) Perceived communication	2.30	.04	.13**	.07	.12**	.10*	–.02	.04	.32**	.29**	–
	11) Emotional support	2.78	.07	.11*	.08	.19**	.20**	.05	.02	.22**	.27**	.13**	–
	12) Instrumental support	2.11	.12**	.13**	.07	.14**	.18**	.04	–.00	.15**	.18**	.13**	.49**	–
	13) Financial support	1.57	.10*	.13**	.07	.15**	.27**	–.00	–.09	.15**	.21**	.19**	.49**	.58**	–
Demographic factors	14) Length of stay (year)	10.51	.01	.06	.04	.04	.18**	–.11*	–.11*	.04	.04	.07	–.03	.00	.04	–
	15) Educational level (% high school or above)	16.60%	.04	.04	.04	.03	.08	.03	–.05	–.08	–.11*	–.09*	.03	.01	–.03	.15**	–
	16) No. of children	2.23	–.03	.06	–.07	.06	.02	–.15**	.07	.03	–.02	.05	–.04	–.08	–.04	.09*	–.06	–
	17) Age	41.27	–.05	.05	–.04	.05	–.02	–.02	.01	.05	–.03	.05	.10*	.00	–.06	.30**	.08	.18**	–
	18) Hope	3.35	.15**	.09*	.16**	.20**	.15**	.01	–.06	.17**	.16**	.06	.18**	.17**	.21**	–.03	.03	.13**	–.00	–
	19) Perceived integration	3.66	.19**	.11*	.16**	.16**	.16**	.13**	–.04	.17**	.21**	.16**	.18**	.19**	.18**	.20**	–.06	–.01	.06	.27**

Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2–tailed). * Correlation is significant at the 0.05.

level (2–tailed).

Path analysis

Before testing the model, Pearson product moment correlations were calculated among the exogenous, mediating, and dependent variables (Table 1). An examination of the correlation matrix indicated that the hypothesized relationships were generally supported: more than one variable from each of the four types of exogenous variables (marital contentment, household finances, social support, and demographic factors) was significantly correlated as predicted with the mediating variable of hope and the outcome variable of perceived integration. In particular, the variable of hope was found to be significantly correlated with perceived integration (r = .27, p = < 0.05).

Path analysis indicated that the model provided a satisfactory fit for the data. Indicators including χ² goodness-of-fit statistics (χ² = 77.86; d.f. = 75, p = .39), the relative χ² (CMIN/d.f. = 1.04), CFI (1.0), RMSEA (.01), GFI (.98), AGFI (.96) and NFI (.96) all suggested that our model showed satisfactory goodness-of-fit. The fit indices exceeded the level of acceptance, with CFI, GFI, AGFI, and NFI being greater than .90, CMIN/d.f. less than 3, and RMSEA far less than .08. Figure 2 represents the tested model, which only shows the significant paths. The percentages of variance explained by the variables of hope and perceived integration were also satisfactory as the squared multiple correlations (R²) for the two variables were .14 and .20, respectively.

Figure 2.

Path model showing standardized regression coefficients (b) (only significant paths are presented).

As shown in Figure 2, the standardized direct effects of the 10 predicting variables in the tested model on the mediating variable of hope and the outcome variable of perceived integration ranged from .07 to .16 and .09 to .22, respectively. As for the indirect effects, Table 2 shows that the standardized beta coefficients of the predicting variables on perceived integration ranged from -.008 to .03. The two independent variables having the largest indirect effects on perceived integration via the mediating variable of hope were habitual talks between spouses and number of children. Only ‘length of stay’ had a significant impact on both mediating and outcome variables, and in this case, the direct effect (β = .22) was much stronger than the indirect effect (β = .02).

Table 2.

Standardized indirect effects for 10 independent variables showing significant paths.

Talk about things	Mutual understanding	Adequate communication	Financial stability	Job readiness
.03	.02	.001	.02	.008
Perceived communication	Financial support	Length of stay	Educational level	No. of children
–.008	.03	.02	.01	.03

The suitability of the model was also confirmed by the fact that the path analysis showed that hope partially mediated the relationship between five exogenous variables (two from marital contentment, one from household finances, one from social support, and one from demographic factors) and perceived integration. Migrant mothers who had more children and reported higher levels of marital contentment, financial stability, and financial support showed better hope for their future, which, in turn, raised their level of perceived integration.

In the model, three of the four variables of marital quality had significant impacts: mutual understanding (β = .10) and adequate communication (β = .16) were significant positive predictors of hope, while talking things over (β = .10) was positively correlated with perceived integration.

In the sphere of household finances, we were surprised to see that poverty did not have a significant impact on hope and perceived integration. What mattered, as the path analysis revealed, were perceived financial stability and job readiness. Our results showed that the higher the perceived stability of family finances, the higher the hopes the respondents had for their future (β = .07). And our study confirmed the findings of existing literature: the higher the immigrants’ readiness to integrate with the labor market, the higher their perceived integration into the host society (β = .15).

We had assumed that social support would have a very strong positive relationship with hope and perceived integration among female immigrants. However, hope was only a significant mediating factor in the relationship between social support for solving financial difficulties and perceived integration (β = .12). On the other hand, perceived inter-neighbor communication was significantly related to perceived integration in a direct way (β = .07).

Three of the four demographic factors were found to have significant impacts on the mediating and outcome variables. Length of residence was found to be positively predictive of hope (β = .08), and its direct impact on perceived integration was even stronger (β = .22). It was interesting to discover that the higher the respondents’ educational level, the lower their perceived integration (β = -.09). This finding may indicate that the devaluation of educational qualifications makes the acculturation process of immigrants more difficult. Another notable finding was that the more children the respondent had, the higher her hopes for the family’s future (β = .16). This reflects the traditional Chinese view of children as assets.¹¹ The respondent’s age did not exert a significant impact on the mediating and outcome variables.

With regard to the main construct of the study, the path model presented a strong and positive association between hope and perceived integration (β = .21). Hence, our thesis that the hope of a significant improvement contributes significantly to a subjective evaluation of integration was confirmed.

Discussion

Cultural gender roles

The path analysis shows that the data fit our suggested model. It also confirms that to put down roots in a new environment under dire economic conditions involves a difficult upheaval. Hope for the future is a necessary ‘psychological bridge’ (Schneller, 1981: 95) to facilitate integration into the host society. Without such a positive commitment, female immigrants lack the confidence to deal with problems associated with relocation. Therefore, knowing the determinants of hope will help us to understand the integration process of immigrant families, reveal the specific vulnerabilities of migrant mothers living in poor areas, and guide us to formulate appropriate and effective services.

The results indicate that marital happiness had a significant positive impact on the hope of migrant mothers and their perceived integration. Specifically, the greater the perceived spousal support in terms of communication and understanding, the higher the levels of aspiration for a better future and sense of local identity. A good match of personalities was the only marital variable that was not significantly associated with the mediating and outcome variables. This suggests that the acculturation process depends not on the inherent personal traits of individuals but on good communication skills, which enable better personal relationships and better access to social services.

Our findings support Chiu’s (2004) research on the help-seeking patterns of Chinese women: Chinese women are socialized to tolerate an ‘unequal and over-burdened gender role’ (p. 155). If their family environment is tense or prone to conflict, they blame themselves for being inadequate wives and mothers, and strive to overcome difficulties independently. A good personality match in a spouse is not a significant factor for them because they are trained to adapt their personality to their family’s wishes. On the other hand, marital relationships matter because good marriages reflect their successful womanhood.

This cultural stigma also explains why poverty is not, in itself, a significant factor in our model: these migrant mothers adopt what Wall and José (2004) call a ‘mother-centered’ strategy and organize their work around their children’s nursery or school timetables. However, if they believe that they will not find employment or have a stable income, then they will experience less hope and a weaker sense of perceived integration. Perceived stability of household income has a direct impact on their hope for the future (β = .07) and an indirect, albeit muted, impact on perceived integration (β =.07 × .2 = .014). Like many previous studies (e.g. Bevelander, 2005), our study found that employment prospects are a strong predictor of perceived integration. However, job readiness did not exert a significant impact on hope. One interpretation of this finding is that employment is perceived by migrant mothers only as a means of integration.

The women in our study, unlike those in Buunk (1983), did not rely on the emotional sharing and intimacy (i.e. emotional support) afforded by a social network to bolster their hope and perceived integration. Only financial support had a significant effect on hope (β = .12), which indirectly increased their sense of belonging to the host society (β =.12 × .2 = .024). Although only one social capital measure had a significant impact on perceived integration, the other two influenced the variance in the expected direction. Therefore, we suggest that this study supports previous research on the positive role of social capital in acculturation (e.g. Herreros and Criado, 2009).

Implications for practitioners

Our findings have implications for practitioners who seek to improve the opportunities of poor migrant women burdened by household and child-care responsibilities. Effective initiatives will benefit not only the women themselves but also the host community because negative integration does not lead to a stable and harmonious society.

Our study identifies three areas where improvements could be made. First, in order to promote harmonious transnational marriages, community programs should focus on educational activities to enhance marital support, encourage communication, and overcome gender assumptions.

Second, social service agencies should hire practitioners who share the background of Chinese migrants and appreciate their traditions.¹² Opening the lines of communication would provide significant social support. There are, however, several foreseeable obstacles to such a plan. First, the service will not succeed if a fee is charged, so practitioners will have to find subsidies for such projects. Second, many migrant mothers may be unwilling to discuss their problems with others due to cultural barriers or low self-esteem (Chiu, 2004; Kung et al., 2004).

In light of these obstacles, practitioners should be sensitive to the needs of migrant mothers and aware of the many factors that contribute to their low participation rate in activities that aim to help them. Relationship-based programs could be used to promote migrant mothers’ awareness of their own needs and encourage them to seek help. Self-help groups and/or mentoring schemes could pair more resourceful migrant mothers with those needing help.

Finally, more social services should be available to ensure financial stability and promote job readiness, as these factors have been shown to contribute to hope and perceived integration. These services would include daycare and tutoring for children, as well as job training and placement services for mothers.

Limitations

The study carries a contribution as to bring in the concept of ‘hope’ as a mediating factor in migrants’ integration process into the host society. However, it must be noted that the results of this study have several limitations. First, the findings cannot be generalized since the data were collected from selected schools in three communities. Second, we did not deal with the complexities of integration: we did not determine whether self-reported integration referred to uni-dimensional integration (whereby immigrants adapt to the mainstream culture while relinquishing their original one) or bi-dimensional integration (whereby immigrants adapt to the mainstream culture while maintaining their inherited ethnic identity) (Blomstedt et al., 2007). Also, the single item of integration used has not been able to assess the respondents’ ability to adapt to the mainstream culture. Besides, the measurement of social support networks was not comprehensive: the size was determined, but not the membership. Lastly, the sample only included mothers. A more comprehensive picture would be obtained if the husbands’ experiences were also included.

Footnotes

Funding

This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.

Notes

Author biographies

Wing-Chung Ho is an associate professor at the Department of Applied Social Studies, City University of Hong Kong.

Linda Tjia Yin Nor is an instructor at the Department of Applied Social Sciences, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University.

Joseph Wu is an assistant professor at the Department of Applied Social Studies, City University of Hong Kong.

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