Abstract
This study analyzed parenting stress, parental sense of competence, and stressful life events in families at psychosocial risk in Western Andalusia (Spain) and the Algarve (Portugal). Differences and similarities between families from both countries on these dimensions were explored, as well as the influence of country of origin in determining risk profiles for this population. Although both groups shared some sociodemographic characteristics, differences were found on all studied dimensions, with Portuguese mothers showing higher levels of parenting stress, sense of competence, and accumulation of stressful life events. Results suggest that higher risk families tend to share psychosocial characteristics, regardless of their country of origin.
Family is one of the main contexts of human development and fulfills several basic functions that guarantee the appropriate growth and socialization of its members. However, when a family is characterized by an accumulation of risk factors and by having minimal protective factors, the family’s capacity for satisfying the developmental needs of its members may be in jeopardy. Families at psychosocial risk can be defined as those who hinder children’s wellbeing yet not severely enough to require child out-of-home placement (Little et al., 2004; Menéndez et al., 2010; Rodrigo and Byrne, 2011; Rodrigo et al., 2012a, 2012b).
Research developed in different countries shows that one of the most shared features of at-risk families assisted by child and family protection services is a notable socioeconomic and educational precariousness. Thus, indicators of a disadvantaged sociodemographic background and economic stress are common and well-documented characteristics of most at-risk families, namely low educational levels, single-parent status, work instability, joblessness, poverty, and financial assistance (Bagdasaryan, 2005; Little et al., 2004; Mullis et al., 2012). Another characteristic of at-risk families is that they tend to be multi-assisted by social services, with prolonged and chronic interventions and/or different family members being service recipients (Bagdasaryan, 2005; Mullis et al., 2012; Pope et al., 2005).
The same profile has been documented in both Spain and Portugal. In Spain, there has been a growing interest in these families in the last few years (Byrne et al., 2013; Hidalgo et al., 2010; Rodrigo and Byrne, 2011; Rodrigo et al., 2012b). These studies show that the majority of at-risk families are headed by single mothers with low educational level, precarious jobs, and financial situations (Menéndez et al., 2010, 2012). For the aforementioned reasons, these women tend to have a greater dependence on social services (Rodrigo and Byrne, 2011). In Portugal, studies have focused mainly on the skills and strengths that characterize at-risk families as well as how they use social welfare services. These studies have shown that the majority of these families had a precarious socioeconomic profile (Matos and Sousa, 2004, 2006; Sousa et al., 2007; Sousa and Ribeiro, 2005). Therefore, research suggests that beyond cultural peculiarities, at-risk families tend to share some significant characteristics, mainly socioeconomic hardship and intense and prolonged connections with social services.
Nowadays, transnational mandates are declaring the need for a philosophy about intervention with at-risk families that focuses on strengthening their resources, supporting families through a broad range of services that must deliver assistance beyond financial or material resources, with the aim of improving family functioning, preventing child maltreatment, and promoting family and child wellbeing (Bagdasaryan, 2005; Rodrigo et al., 2012a). Thus, action lines recommended by the Council of Europe have promoted Recommendation 19 on Policy to Support Positive Parenting (Committee of Ministers of the Council of Europe, 2006), the purpose of which is for member states to create and actively support Child and Family Protection Services in each country to assist families declared at risk. According to this recommendation, Spanish and Portuguese legislations share a philosophy of intervention with at-risk families based on support and family preservation. Nevertheless, the way in which child protection and family preservation services are organized is different in each country. In Spain, interventions with at-risk children have been centralized in the Autonomous Communities (Comunidades Autónomas) since 1987. In Portugal, the responsibility of enforcing child protective measures is shared among the Commissions of the Protection of Children and Youths (Comissões de Protecção de Crianças e Jovens), Juvenile Court, and Social Services, as well as Health and Education Services. This fragmentation of services hinders comprehensive family care because each institution tends to focus on its own perspective, thereby segmenting the interventions aimed to reduce the problems faced by this population (Matos and Sousa, 2004, 2006).
Nonetheless, in both countries, there is a significant lack of empirical evidence about the psychological characteristics that define at-risk families besides socioeconomic hardship. Most existing investigations have focused on the description of their sociodemographical profile, but little is known about intra-familial dynamics (e.g. parent–child relationship, self-confidence as parent, family cohesion). Therefore, obtaining evidence about psychosocial dimensions of at-risk families is essential to design and implement suitable interventions based on their specific needs. This is important since the effectiveness of professional actions depends in part on how well they fit recipients’ needs and profile (Hutchings and Webster-Stratton, 2004).
Studies conducted mainly with North American samples showed that experiencing high levels of parenting stress is one of the main psychological characteristics that define at-risk families (Anderson, 2008; Raikes and Thompson, 2005). Parenting stress refers to the aversive psychological reaction to the demands of being a parent, in which one experiences negative feelings towards oneself and his children, which are directly attributable to role demands (Deater-Deckard, 1998). This experience may be due to the adversities and negative life events that parents suffer and the lack of personal and social resources to cope with them (Chang and Fine, 2007). The available data showed that at-risk parents tend to have life trajectories with many negative and stressful events, such as child and adulthood maltreatment, substance and alcohol abuse, health problems, emotional disorders, and antisocial behavior (Rodríguez et al., 2006). Negative life events and parenting stress for mothers living in very adverse circumstances are closely linked (Chang and Fine, 2007; Conger et al., 2002; Whiteside-Mansell et al., 2007). However, in Southern European countries such as Portugal or Spain, there are few empirical findings on the relationship between these dimensions.
In addition to showing the link between parenting stress and the presence of negative life events, the extant research highlights that high levels of parenting stress are related to inappropriate parenting practices and negative parent–child interactions (Coyl et al., 2002; Martorell and Bugental, 2006), as well as to child behavior problems and child psychopathology (Baker et al., 2003). For these reasons, parenting stress is considered a key factor in explaining the negative performance of some at-risk parents. Consequently, reducing parenting stress is one of the targets of many psychosocial interventions in order to support and preserve families (Hidalgo et al., 2010; Kumpfer and Alvarado, 2003). In fact, and according to the large review conducted by Bennett et al. (2013), parenting stress is commonly used to evaluate the efficacy and effectiveness of family interventions.
Parental sense of competence has also been a topic of interest in the research on at-risk families. It refers to the extent to which parents feel effective, trust in their ability to cope with parenting-related issues, and perceive they have the capacity to positively influence the behavior and development of their children (Coleman and Karraker, 2000; Johnston and Mash, 1989). There are data to support the hypothesis that the perceptions parents hold about themselves influence the adjustment of their children (Jones and Prinz, 2005). Specifically, a low sense of parental competence is associated with the presence of depressive symptoms, high parenting stress levels, and the perception that one’s child is a difficult child (Coleman and Karraker, 2000; Sanders and Woolley, 2005; Wong et al., 2003). Some research on Spanish at-risk families suggests that mothers tend to hold a distorted vision regarding their skills and abilities as caregivers (Menéndez et al., 2010; Rodrigo et al., 2008). This finding is particularly troubling because perceived parenting efficacy seems to show a closer relation to parenting behavior in at-risk families than in normative ones. For example, Ardelt and Eccles (2001) reported that for poor African-American families in inner-city neighborhoods, mothers’ self-efficacy beliefs were more closely associated with positive parenting behavior, self-efficacy, and academic success of children than for Caucasian middle-class families.
Overall, current research shows the importance of stressful life events, the role of parenting stress, and parental sense of competence on the dynamics and processes occurring in at-risk families. Nonetheless, empirical data about these dimensions in Portugal and Spain are scarce. Hence, the purpose of this study is to obtain information about similarities and differences in family characteristics in both countries. This knowledge is useful for designing family psycho-educational programs aimed at supporting positive parenting (Dominelli, 2010).
Specifically, the aims of this study are the following:
To analyze and compare the levels of parenting stress, parental sense of competence, and stressful life events in families at psychosocial risk, from Western Andalusia and the Algarve.
To explore the influence of the country of origin in establishing risk profiles in this population.
Method
Participants
The sample of this study included 155 mothers, 81 (52.30%) Spanish and 74 (47.70%) Portuguese, referred by government-provided family preservation services (Social Community Services of Huelva and Child Protective Services of the Algarve).
The inclusion criterion of the sample was having a child at-risk. A child is considered to be at risk when his or her family deals with several psychosocial and personal factors that hinder his or her optimal development (without episodes of child maltreatment or neglect). In both countries, these factors are determined by professionals of family services through their sociodemographical risk characteristics and their accumulation of stressful life events (e.g. family conflicts, substance abuse, legal problems).
Those mothers who agreed to participate signed an informed consent form that stated the voluntary nature of their participation, the anonymity and confidentiality of their answers, and the possibility of abandoning the investigation at any stage without negative consequences.
Instruments
Sociodemographic data
Data on the participants’ age, academic level, employment status, family size and structure, number of children, age, gender, and family income and its source were collected.
Parenting Stress Index–Short Form (PSI-SF)
This is a self-report instrument with 36 items which assess, on a 5-point scale (1 = Strongly Disagree and 5 = Strongly Agree), three dimensions of stress associated with parenting: Parental Distress (e.g. I feel that I cannot handle things), Parent–Child Dysfunctional Interaction (e.g. My child doesn’t giggle or laugh much when playing), and Difficult Child (e.g. My child cries or fusses more often than other children) (Abidin, 1995). The Cronbach’s alpha score for the three subscales was αPT = .78 and αSP = .80 for Parental Distress, αPT = .67 and αSP = .80 for Mother–Child Dysfunctional Interaction, and αPT = .84 and αSP = .82 for Difficult Child. The reliability index for the total PSI was .84 for the Portuguese sample and .82 for the Spanish sample.
Parental Sense of Competence Scale (PSOC)
This is a self-report scale containing 16 items with anchors ranging from 1 (No, Strongly Disagree) to 6 (Yes, Strongly Agree) (Johnston and Mash, 1989). It comprises two subscales: Efficacy (αPT = .70, αSP = .62) and Satisfaction (αPT = .69, αSP = .44). The Efficacy subscale assesses the extent to which a mother feels competent in her role (e.g. I honestly believe I have all the skills necessary to be a good mother to my child). The Satisfaction subscale assesses the degree to which the respondent is satisfied by being a mother (e.g. Being a parent makes me tense and anxious).
Stressful and Risky Life Events Inventory (SRLEI)
This comprises a list of 16 negative events (e.g. economic pressure, unemployment/labor instability, divorce, domestic violence, substance abuse, and so on), allowing researchers to calculate both the number of stressful situations that the individual or people in their immediate environment have experienced, as well as the emotional impact (1 = Low Affectation and 3 = Very High Affectation) of these situations over the past 3 years (Hidalgo et al., 2005).
Procedure
This study is part of a larger cooperative research project between both regions, aimed at analyzing the psychosocial profile of at-risk families. After obtaining the approval from the Ethics Board of the participating universities, collaboration from Child Protective Commissions (Portugal) and Community Social Services (Spain) was solicited. All contacted services agreed to participate and offered their facilities for conducting the interviews.
The procedure for data collection was the same in both countries: instructions given to the participants were identical and instruments were applied in the same order. The SRLEI was completed by the professionals who followed the families’ case. The rest of the instruments were administrated by trained native interviewers, and interviews had an average length of 60 minutes.
Plan of analysis
To compare means and frequencies, Snedecor F and chi-square tests were performed for quantitative and qualitative variables, respectively. Additionally, effect sizes were calculated by Cohen’s d and Cramer’s V. When violations of homoscedasticity occurred, we used Welch’s F tests.
A series of cluster analyses were computed in order to explore the joint variability of the sample with respect to parenting stress, parental sense of competence, and stressful life events. Cluster analysis is a multivariate classification technique that identifies groups of individual cases defined by similarities on multiple dimensions so that members of the resulting groups are as similar as possible to others within their group (high within-group homogeneity) and as different as possible from those in the other groups (low between-group homogeneity) (Henry et al., 2005). Prior to clustering, all selected measures were standardized in order to equate the variables. Initial groupings were derived through hierarchical cluster analysis with squared Euclidean distance and nearest neighbor method used as the measure of linkage. The best solution (number of clusters) was determined examining both the agglomeration schedule and the dendogram. The centroids of these initial clusters were then submitted to an iterative clustering procedure (K-means cluster analysis) to refine final cluster membership. Once the cluster dimensions were determined through confirmatory K-means clustering, the quality was checked by analyzing atypical subjects, calculating the t-distribution of the sample, comparing standardized residuals for all the variables selected, and checking for outliers. To analyze the differences between clusters, post hoc tests were performed based on the selected demographic variables (analysis of variance [ANOVA] and chi-square).
Results
Sociodemographic characteristics
Portuguese mothers had a mean age of 38.09 years (SD = 7.72), a high number of children (M = 2.89, SD = 1.66), who were mostly boys (66.22%), with a mean age of approximately 13 years (M = 13.57, SD = 3.88). The majority of the mothers were married (75.68%), lived in a two-parent family (73%), and had a low educational level (86.49% had completed only elementary school). Spanish women were approximately 36 years old (M = 36.15, SD = 6.92), with an average number of 2.47 children (SD = 1.09), mainly boys (69.14%), whose average age was 8.33 years (SD = 3.25). Most of these women were married (58%) and lived in two-parent families (59.30%). Furthermore, the majority of the Spanish participants had completed only elementary education (75.64%). Both the employment and economic statuses of the two samples were notably precarious. Most of the Portuguese (59.46%) and Spanish (61.73%) mothers were unemployed and living below the national poverty line (43.24% of the Portuguese and 46.91% for the Spanish).
Spanish and Portuguese mothers were comparable in the following variables: participant’s age (F(1, 152) = 2,714, ns), family type (χ2(1, N = 152) = 2.25, ns), number of children (F(1, 149) = 3,410, ns), and children’s gender (χ2(1, N = 155) = .15, ns). However, the children’s average age in the Spanish sample was significantly lower than that of the Portuguese sample (F(1, 152) = 83.05, p < .001).
Mean differences and Pearson correlations
In order to meet the first aim of this study, mean scores on parenting stress, perceived parental competence, and stressful life events were compared for the two samples. Spanish mothers differed from the Portuguese in all three studied dimensions. Thus, compared to the Spanish mothers, the Portuguese mothers reported a higher stress level in parent–child dysfunctional relationship (F(1,152) = 5.596, p < .05) with a medium size effect (d = .38), a higher sense of parental efficacy (F(1,152) = 17.183, p < .001) with a large size effect (d = .67), and a higher number of individual stressful events (F(1,146) = 18.824, p < .001), also with a large size effect (d = −.71).
Two separate Pearson correlation analyses were performed for each country on the dimensions. As indicated in Table 1, in general, the subscales focusing on parenting stress and parental sense of competence were negatively related. Specifically, in the Spanish sample, perceived efficacy was negatively correlated with Parental Distress (r = −.319, p < .001), Difficult Child (r = −.359, p < .001) and Parent–Child Dysfunctional Interaction (r = −.284, p < .001). However, in the Portuguese sample, no statistically significant relationship was found between these variables. Regarding Satisfaction with parental role, the three parenting stress subscales significantly correlated with this dimension in both samples, with Spanish mothers showing a higher correlation (r = −.626, p < .001).
Descriptives and Pearson correlations between dimensions based on parenting stress, parental sense of competence, and stressful life events and its impact on the Portuguese and Spanish samples.
SLE = stressful life events.
Note: The values above and below the diagonal correspond to the correlations from the Portuguese sample (PT) and the Spanish sample (SP), respectively.
p < .10; *p < .05; **p < .01; ***p < .001.
The perception of difficulty concerning child care (r = .340, p < .01) and the level of parental distress (r = .243, p < .05) was significantly associated with a history of negative life events of the mothers’ immediate environment. Furthermore, the emotional impact of these negative events was significantly associated with both dimensions of parenting stress in the Portuguese mothers (r = .274; p < .05; r = .220, p < 1; r = .373, p < .01).
In the Spanish sample, the individual and environmental accumulation of stressful events and its respective averaged impact were not significantly related to any of the three parenting stress subscales scores.
Two-step cluster analysis
To accomplish the second aim of this study, a two-step cluster analysis was performed on parenting stress, perception of parental efficacy, satisfaction with the parental role, and individual and environmental stressful events. An exploratory hierarchical clustering suggested a three-group solution, and a confirmatory K-means cluster analysis sorted the sample in three groups of mothers (Table 2): C1 (n = 53, 37.06%), C2 (n = 31, 21.68%), and C3 (n = 59, 41.26%).
Cluster characterization as a function of parenting stress, parental sense of competence, and stressful events.
PD = parental distress; PCDI = parent–child dysfunctional interaction, DC = difficult child.
p < .10; *p < .05; **p < .01; ***p < .001.
The first cluster (C1) differed significantly from the other two, indicating medium scores of parenting stress, higher in the parent–child dysfunctional interaction and difficult child subscales, a higher sense of parental efficacy, and a lower accumulation of stressful life events within the past 3 years. The second cluster (C2) was characterized by low levels of parenting stress and of sense of efficacy in the mother’s role, and a high accumulation of individual stressful life events. Finally, a third cluster (C3) revealed high scores of parenting stress on all three subscales, a low sense of efficacy and satisfaction with the mother’s role, and a medium accumulation of individual stressful life events.
Typology characterization
To complete the analysis, bivariate analyses were computed including the three resulting clusters and different individual, relational, familial, and work-based sociodemographic variables. As shown in Table 3, children’s gender, mother’s educational level, and the family’s economic and professional situation were evenly distributed between the three clusters, with no significant differences. However, children’s age, family type, cohabitation and relational status, and country of origin significantly differentiated the clusters. Specifically, mothers in C1 tended to be characterized, on average, as being Portuguese (66.04%), having 11-year-old (M = 11.62, SD = 4.02) boys and girls, living in two-parent families (81.13%), and having a stable partner (88.70%) in a de facto union or marriage (81.13%). In turn, C2 was mainly composed of Spanish mothers (77.42%), having sons and daughters who were on average 8 years old (M = 8.77, SD = 4.33), belonging to single-parent families (54.84%) as a result of separation or divorce (58.06), and without a stable companion (54.84%). Finally, C3 was composed of predominantly single mothers (8.47%), having children aged, on average, 11 years old (M = 11.53, SD = 4.46), and having a homogeneous distribution with regard to both family type and country of origin.
Cluster characterization as a function of studied dimensions.
p < .10; *p < .05; **p < .01; ***p < .001.
DMS: Minimum significant difference test; RTC: Corrected Typified Residues.
Discussion
This study is, to our knowledge, one of the first research projects to analyze parenting stress, parental sense of competence, and stressful life situations in Spanish and Portuguese families at psychosocial risk simultaneously. Hence, in spite of the small sample size (common in studies centered in clinical populations), data collected and analyses performed allowed us to make a first exploration of the main similarities and differences between at-risk families in both countries.
Concerning the first objective, results showed differences between Portuguese and Spanish at-risk mothers across all three dimensions. As shown earlier, Portuguese mothers reported higher stress in their relationships with their children, felt more efficacious as a parent, and accumulated a higher number of individual stressful events as compared to Spanish mothers. First, the accumulation of a higher number of stressful events and higher levels of parenting stress suggest that Portuguese mothers, similar to those in the present sample, constitute a population at higher risk than users of Social Services in Andalusia do. Second, the higher perception of parenting efficacy found in the Portuguese sample corroborates the idea that families with a more severe risk profile tend to perceive themselves as highly efficacious and competent in their self-evaluations as parents (Rodrigo et al., 2008). This effect may be mainly due to parents’ lack of knowledge about what being a competent parent means, but also in part to the external attributions most of these parents make in explaining their children’s behavioral problems (Coleman and Karraker, 2003; Jones and Prinz, 2005). Supporting this idea, unlike in the Spanish sample, parental self-efficacy did not correlate to parenting stress in the Portuguese sample. In at-risk populations, with a lower risk level and a more adjusted perception of their parenting competences, parenting stress was inversely associated with self-efficacy, a trend similar to those in several other studies with similar samples (Leerkes and Burney, 2007; Raikes and Thompson, 2005). As for role satisfaction, our data suggest that the positive and satisfactory perception of the parenting role was negatively related to parenting stress, for both Portuguese and Spanish mothers, in accordance with previous studies showing that satisfaction is more closely related to parenting stress than parental self-efficacy (Johnston and Mash, 1989; Pérez et al., 2010).
On the other hand, the results for the accumulation of stressful life events were different for each sample. We observed that, for Portuguese mothers, stress due to childcare was associated with the immediate environment stressful circumstances and their subsequent emotional impact. However, the way in which Spanish mothers were affected by risk events was negatively associated with their perception of parental efficacy. These results follow the same line of previous studies focusing on other populations at psychosocial risk, which demonstrate that families who live in stressful environments or who have suffered several negative events tend to experience high stress levels and hold a more negative view of their role as a parent (Anderson, 2008; Östberg and Hagekull, 2000).
Cluster analyses revealed the existence in these two samples of three profiles of mothers, addressing the second aim of this investigation. The high standard deviations resulting from this multivariate statistic revealed an important heterogeneity and diversity between the families included in the three groups, but also identified that mothers within each cluster are significantly similar. Women in the first group (C1) were characterized as having medium levels of parenting stress, a high perception of parental self-efficacy, and a low accumulation of stressful life events over the last 3 years. Mothers in the second group (C2) reported low parenting stress levels, a low perception of their own efficacy as parents, and a greater accumulation of individual negative life events. In the third group (C3), women reported high parenting stress, low perceptions of parental efficacy, and a medium accumulation of individual stressful situations. Country of origin is a key variable for understanding the different risk family profiles for C1 and C2, but not for C3. According to the results of the multivariate analyses, in the latter, cluster families shared the more negative indicators assessed but were not defined by their country of origin. Therefore, these results suggest that when stress levels are high (i.e. surpassing clinical levels), parental self-efficacy and role satisfaction levels are low and there is a moderate accumulation of negative situations, the effects attributable to country or culture tend to fade.
Findings reported in this study may be useful in order to improve the interventions implemented in child and family protection services. According to Recommendation 16 from the Council of Europe (2006), preventive and supporting interventions should be offered from child and family protection national agencies in all European countries. The results obtained in this study can help to enhance the design and evaluation of evidence-based parental education programs aimed at promoting positive parenting (Deković et al., 2012; Rodrigo et al., 2012a). Moreover, the observed differences between both countries suggest the need to design and to implement specific primary prevention programs, suitable to fulfill different needs of at-risk families in Portugal and Spain. Nevertheless, and particularly for the mothers at higher risk, there are several topics that have to be addressed (namely, to reduce parenting stress and to improve parental sense of competence) and that have to be taken into account by practitioners who work with these families in social services. The notorious accumulation of risk factors (both individual and environmental) should also be addressed in community interventions.
Considering these aspects seems particularly critical in professional practice and especially in intervention design and decision making. As Hutchings and Webster-Stratton (2004) highlight, service providers from child and family protection agencies must adjust and fit their actions to the specific needs and resources of service recipients, since this adjustment is a key factor for the effectiveness of family preservation and support intervention. Moreover, and according to contemporary transnational recommendations, at-risk families should not be approached merely with financial or material interventions, but also through a broader and more comprehensive perspective. Parental competence or coping strategies are only some examples of intra-familial dimensions that need to be addressed in family interventions according to a strengthening and positive philosophy that should inspire social services.
There are limitations of this study that deserve attention. The geographical specificity of the sample (families from Western Andalusia and the Algarve) prevents generalizing our results to psychosocial risk families from other regions of the Iberian Peninsula. Also it must be noticed that the two samples differed in child age, so future studies should address this issue. Furthermore, to investigate whether parenting stress and mothers’ perceived competence depend on the quality of support available from social services, it would be necessary to include more dimensions in the study (e.g. maternal satisfaction with the support provided by social service institutions) and to exhaustively analyze supports and services from which families benefit. In addition, it would be interesting and necessary to analyze the role played by the welfare trajectory in these processes and, in general, in family dynamics. The fact that mothers were the only informants limits our knowledge about multi-problem families. Thus, future studies should include fathers, children, and/or professionals as informants.
Despite these limitations, we think that this study offers results that may contribute to this field. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first research to characterize the psychosocial profiles of at-risk families from the south of Spain and the Algarve from a comparative perspective. Additionally, this is one of the few cross-cultural studies in the international literature about at-risk families that analyzes not only sociodemographic features, but psychological dimensions as well.
Footnotes
Funding
This paper is financed by National Funds provided by FCT- Foundation for Science and Technology through project UID/SOC/04020/2013.