Critical realist discourse analysis of Chinese parents of children with dyslexia

The actual events experienced by dyslexic students

They seldom participate in classroom activities (McNulty, 2003). The teachers only give limited reading and writing instruction for dyslexic students with limited comprehension skills (Madigan, 2006).

The experienced events and how problems are perceived by dyslexic students

They feel powerless because they are excluded from classroom practices (McNulty, 2003). They feel that they have fewer opportunities to learn (Landis and Moje, 2003).

The real and causal mechanisms underlying these events

These mechanisms, especially in a school system, include the following: (a) classroom culture, that is, the dominant classroom discourse of ‘normal’ behaviour (Raid, 2019), (b) social perception, that is, students with dyslexia are not viewed as experienced language users or active participants in the classroom (Landis and Moje, 2003), (c) educational right – that is, the right to learning – is impeded across different groups of students (Macdonald, 2013) and (d) teachers’ knowledge and understanding of dyslexia is limited (Regan and Woods, 2000).

Critical realism facilitates the consideration of the contextual factors that may influence the meaning-making process (Sims-Schouten and Riley, 2019).

Exam-oriented education (yingshi jiaoyu)

The characteristics of the exam-oriented education system were revealed through exploring the parents’ discourses. Dyslexic students cannot benefit from the exam-oriented education system because exam skills rely heavily on memorisation and writing. The curriculum is restricted by the exam requirements, and the teachers often focus on enhancing the exam skills of the students.

Mrs K said that her son could not get the grade she hoped for because of his bad memory and nervousness:

Mrs K: I know he has made the effort, but I think that he is very nervous, he may be afraid of writing. He often gets 80 marks in a language exam. Apparently, this is a bad score. My son is anxious because the written exam relies on memory and writing. He cannot remember the correct answer to the exam questions.

Mrs L was a working mother of two boys, aged 11 and 9. Her youngest son, who had been diagnosed with dyslexia, was in primary three. She revealed that her husband had high expectations of their son. In particular, he hoped that the son could get good scores in exams. Mrs L said that this expectation was unrealistic:

Mrs L: My husband has relatively high expectations. For example, if my son scores 80 in this exam, his father will ask him if he can get 90 next time. I just think that my son has no self-confidence and the pressure comes from parents. Because of the exam-oriented culture in school, many parents force their children to achieve better scores. I think this is unrealistic because I understand that studying now is very hard for him.

The discourses of the parents revealed that school teachers pay attention to excellent students and neglect the low performers. Under exam-oriented education, standardised tests are considered to be the best method for measuring how well a student learns. Naturally, parents will push their children to score higher in exams. However, excessive parental aspiration can be disastrous. These unrealistic expectations are related to the exam-oriented culture and society’s expectations about children’s achievements.

Supportive versus unsupportive teacher’s attitude

The discourse on ‘problematic behaviour’ and ‘problematic children’ is reinforced and reproduced in the school system because disruptive behaviour is unacceptable in the classroom. Even one student’s disruptive behaviour will impede the learning of other students. This discrimination is repeated daily in normal classrooms. These false concepts result from placing too much emphasis on the expectation that a child should ‘behave well’ in the classroom. Without taking into account the special learning needs of a student, a class of 70 students is a poor arrangement.

Mrs B was a full-time mother of a 7-year-old boy studying in primary one, who had been diagnosed with hyperactivity and attention deficit. Mrs B received complaints about her son from his teacher from time to time. Her son was viewed as ‘a problematic student’ in the eyes of teachers, and they failed to investigate the underlying reasons behind his behaviour. Most of the time, the teachers scolded her son in front of the whole class. It was a shameful situation, and many classmates refused to play with him:

Mrs B: At the beginning, the teacher’s attitude was better. But then it became worse and worse, because the teacher himself had to take care of 70 children in the class. It was very hard for her to maintain class discipline. The teacher often gives me phone call. Every time I listened to the teacher’s complaints, I was very nervous and I felt so annoyed. She often punishes my son because he distracts his classmates in class. She consider my son as a problematic student. Other children don’t like to play with him. My son has a feeling of inferiority.

Compared to the other parents, Mrs H did not seem to experience much psychological pressure, although this does not imply that her son’s problem was solved or less severe. The biggest difference was that the teachers were more friendly towards her. Although the teachers had to manage a large class and were evaluated according to their students’ academic scores, they were still willing to respond differently to the learning style of her son. Mrs H’s discourses suggest that it is vital for teachers to be aware of the signs of dyslexia in their students. In this case, the training received by the teacher on special education enabled her to find inclusive solutions for students with special learning needs:

Mrs H: The teacher is positive. She understands my son’s condition although there is not a lot she can do to help him. Because she has a class of 50 students, she cannot properly make adjustments for my son’s learning needs. Anyway, she has acknowledged that my son has his strengths. She is willing to respond differently to his learning style. I know the teacher has received some training in special education and this has enhanced her understanding of my child.

Extra support offered to dyslexic children

The discourses of some parents reflect schools’ efforts to move from exam-oriented education to whole-person education, which may be just the first step in changing the rigid educational system. The initial attempt involves offering extra support to dyslexic children by providing interesting courses or adjusting the curriculum. However, the implementation of whole-person education requires a substantial investment of resources from the school, including professional development, education policy and advocacy. Because many teachers still do not know how to help students with dyslexia, the provision of short-term quality education courses has little effect on students.

Mrs C was a single, working mother of an 11-year-old girl in primary five, who was easily distracted and had difficulties with writing. Her academic performance was poor, and she could not keep up with students of the same age. Mrs C said that the teachers arranged special courses for children who could not read and write properly. Furthermore, arrangements were made for these students to attend different, interesting classes, such as art, music and science. However, these courses only lasted for a semester. Her daughter’s school was friendly to poor readers, and Mrs C had no negative criticism of the teachers or school policies:

Mrs C: School teachers arranged special courses for children who cannot read and write. My daughter also took these courses. These courses provided extra support to my daughter. However, she could only take part in one semester. Maybe the school did not have enough resources, and the teacher doesn’t know how to help those students in long term.

Mrs M has an 11-year-old girl who had trouble with maths and language. She could not keep up with the school’s learning progress or complete the assigned homework. Mrs M said that the teachers arranged special courses for children who had special educational needs. Mrs M indicated that the school’s principle was willing to invest resources in integrated education. She appreciated the extra support provided by the school:

Mrs M: School teachers arrange special courses for children who have special education needs. They arrange students in special classes two or three sessions a week. Special classes include drum class, lego building blocks class, math tutoring class and language tutoring class. These courses are free of charge and are funded by the District Education Bureau. I need to submit a hospital diagnosis report to the school and fill out a form if I want my girl to participate in these special classes. My daughter has participated in these courses for one year. The school principle is an open-minded people and supports the integrated education. He is willing to invest resources in integrated education.

Parents’ expectations versus teachers’ expectations

The findings indicate that there were conflicts between the parents’ expectations and teachers’ expectations. The teachers believed that in the principle of fairness, each student should do the same amount of homework. However, the parents believed that the teachers should adjust the quantity of homework according to the abilities of each student.

Mrs W said her son was anxious and frustrated when copying. Her son was a 9-year-old boy who had trouble with writing, reading and copying. Mrs W revealed the teachers’ expectations from the parents’ perspective and said that teachers expected her son to do the same amount of homework as the other students. They refused to reduce the amount of homework for her son. Mrs W said she was very disappointed because the teachers gave her son additional homework as punishment for not finishing the assigned homework:

Mrs W: I think that it is teacher’s problem. Teachers think that all students in the class should be able to finish the same amount of homework. It’s even worse if he can’t finish the homework, he has to copy it ten or twenty times. I think that the teachers expect my son to perform as good as other students and expect him to finish the same amount of homework. However, I cannot agree with the teacher’s viewpoint. I think that my son is different from other students and he really needs extra help and support. Moreover, he needs adjustment of homework quantity and the teachers cannot expect him to perform the same as other students.

Mr X was the father of a 10-year-old boy who had trouble with writing and wrote very slowly and impatiently. Mr X said that there was no way to make his son write faster. He reported that his wife often lost her temper at their son’s writing problem. They talked to the teacher but could not successfully convince the teacher to reduce the amount of homework:

Mr X: Because my son has too much homework, he writes very slowly and he cannot go to sleep until twelve o’clock. Sometimes if he does not finish the homework, he then gets up at five o’clock to continue writing. It seems that he has endless homework every day. I have tried using rewards to encourage my son to write faster. For example, he likes football, I promise that if he writes faster, I will take him to play football. However, he still writes slowly. His mother is very angry with his writing speed. We try to talk to the teacher, hoping that the teacher will give our son less homework. But we fail to convince the teacher to reduce the amount of homework. It is because the teachers expect my son to do the same amount of homework as other students.

Mrs E also encountered the same problem because her son wrote very slowly and could not complete written assignments. However, Mrs E said she was fortunate enough to meet what she described as a gentle teacher, who advised Mrs E to relax and accept her son’s problem:

Mrs E: My son goes to bed at twelve o’clock every night because he writes very slowly. I see his classmates can finish their homework at around seven o’clock at night. Compare to his classmates, my son writes very slowly. Sometimes he even cannot complete one assignment. I feel anxious and I have talked to the teacher. I feel I am lucky to meet a teacher who doesn’t have high expectations of my child. She allows my son to submit fewer homework assignments. The teacher advises me to relax and accept my son’s problem. The teacher said that if he cannot finish the homework, I don’t need to force him.

The greatest problem encountered by the parents on a daily basis was supervising the written assignments of their children. They all talked to the teachers about the problem of homework but received different responses as the teachers appeared to have different expectations of the children’s performances. Some teachers appeared to have very little knowledge of dyslexia. It can be seen that if the teacher’s view is very different from that of the parents, it will cause more stress for the children and their parents.

The discourse of the father and the mother

Although only two fathers participated in the interviews, it could be observed that the fathers and mothers appeared to adopt different approaches to their children’s learning problems. It was interesting to find that the two fathers adopted relatively soft and innovative methods.

Mr G and Mrs G came with their three sons (aged 13, 10 and 4). The two eldest sons were diagnosed with dyslexia and attention deficit. Mr G spoke less, and Mrs G knew more about the child’s situation. Mrs G described herself as a strict, authoritarian mother and Mr G as a firm, authoritative father. Mrs G hoped to fulfil the expectations of teachers and used punishment and strict rules. Mr G was a businessman and believed that his child did not need to work hard for academic success:

Mrs G: Yes, sometimes I break down. I cry because I am worried. I know that I have emotions. Sometimes I beat my son but I regret it later. His elder brother has similar reading and writing problem. I really feel exhausted. I expect him to try his best to finish his homework and study hard. I don’t expect him to get any good grade, but at least he has to do his best.

Mr G: I don’t worry too much, because I am doing business myself. I think that children have many types of work to choose in the future. I don’t expect him to get any good grade.

Another father, Mr X, also said that his wife was irritable and anxious about their child’s issues with studies. Both parents had to work. Mr X described himself as positive and optimistic, but described Mrs X as more worried and feeling helpless:

Mr X: Basically, my wife guides the child to complete the homework. But if I have time, I will teach the child to do homework. I also want to learn some ways to teach my child. My expectations are not as high as those of my wife. I just hope that he can read and write normally. Mom is more worried than me. We hire a tutor but the situation does not improve. Mom just accompanies the child and urges him to write faster. The child doesn’t follow mother’s instruction.

The actual events experienced by the dyslexic students and their parents

These include the following: (a) the education system in Mainland China emphasises the importance of exam-oriented education, (b) the time in a class is used for learning and preparing for examination, (c) improper behaviour is not allowed in class, (d) students are expected to work hard for success and get good grades in exams, (e) teachers will focus on students who can get good grades in exams, (f) mostly, no special teaching arrangements are made for the dyslexic students except in some schools with better arrangements in inclusive education.

The experienced events and how a problem is perceived by the dyslexic students and their parents

These include the following: (a) parents feel powerless because their requests, such as the request for less homework, are often rejected by the teachers, (b) parents feel that their children are criticised and labelled as ‘problematic students’, (c) parents feel that their children cannot benefit from the exam-oriented education system because exam skills rely heavily on memorisation and writing, (d) some parents have high expectations of their children, such as getting good grades in exams, which are unrealistic, (e) parents feel that the teachers only pay attention to the excellent students and neglect the low performers.

The real and causal mechanisms underlying all these events

These mechanisms, especially in a school system, include the following: (a) the unrealistic expectations of the parents and teachers are related to the exam-oriented culture and society’s expectations about children’s achievements, (b) the default classroom practices stress the importance of ‘conformity’, which involves changing behaviours and fitting into a large group. The students are expected to behave like the majority of the students in the classroom and have to be perceived as ‘normal’ by the other students. This creates an impression that dyslexic students are ‘stupid’, ‘problematic’ and ‘have difficulty following teachers’ instructions’, (c) the lack of educational resources and inadequate supply of properly trained teachers are the reasons behind large class sizes and the insufficient support provided to dyslexic children, (e) the different perceptions of values of fairness, equality and children’s responsibility, to name a few, also contribute to this, (f) parents have little awareness about their conforming behaviour – they act according to social expectations about good grades, and lack the power and courage to advocate, for instance, for their children’s right to have their homework adjusted.

In conclusion, the causal mechanisms continue to influence the experiences of dyslexic children and their parents, causing them to doubt the value of their children. Parents and teachers create the content of the discourses, but the school system reinforces and reproduces them. Popular school discourses construct good students as those who achieve good academic results and do not need extra support from the teachers. Moreover, a ‘good parent’ is seen as one who supports their child’s learning at home. Often, the institutional factors causing discrimination are ignored or neglected in the school environment. The critical-realist perspective looks at the interplay of power and school ideology in parents’ discourses. It analyses discourses within the linguistic contexts of schools.

Although the dominant discourses become routine in the school context, some teachers still attempt to change the inequities in school. The discourse of Mrs H uncovered that some school teachers adopted a friendly attitude towards her son and responded differently to his learning style. Mrs H attributed these friendly attitudes to the teacher’s increased awareness and knowledge of dyslexia. It is vital to understand that the different educational backgrounds and working experiences of teachers may also affect how they perceive and understand dyslexia. Some parents like Mrs M and Mrs C received extra support from school teachers despite the fact that most parents interviewed in this study felt helpless about their children’s situations. The different experiences encountered by Mrs H, Mrs M and Mrs C reveal different discursive practices in the school system.

Therefore, the causal mechanisms underlying these different discursive practices may be caused by the different policies and practices of different school systems. The underlying values of whole-person education and elite education, which are circulating in schools, must be considered and analysed.