Abstract
This research is aimed at examining the motivational elements that the social worker specialised in immigration considers as determinants of their job satisfaction and dissatisfaction. An instrument was designed and validated to collect these perceptions in quantitative and qualitative terms, among a sample composed of 100 social services professionals from 43 localities in Galicia, Spain. The findings report that, while labour satisfaction is associated with intrinsic aspects of their job (such as personal self-fulfilment and constant contact with clients), the main sources of dissatisfaction relate to organisational and extrinsic work aspects (like workload, lack of support or excess of bureaucracy).
Keywords
Introduction
Spain has been a host country for immigrants since the beginning of this century. The new migratory flows caused the emergence of different social needs, an increase in demand for services and resources, but also their diversification (Godás et al., 2018). Due to this, social work has recently become interested in the social intervention with foreigners. Social workers’ performance is critically dependent on their motivation, with service quality, efficiency and equity all directly mediated by their willingness to apply themselves to their tasks. Therefore, it is necessary to analyse which factors determine their job satisfaction and which aspects of their labour conditions can be improved.
This article presents the only research study developed in Galicia (Northwestern Spain) about the job satisfaction and motivation of social workers that specifically work with immigrants. The objectives of this study are focused, first, on determining the representative elements of social workers’ intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, along with their relationship with labour satisfaction. Second, it aims to analyse what social and professional variables determine or strengthen each type of motivation. Finally, the qualitative data obtained from the open-ended questions of the questionnaire will allow the establishment of a relationship between the mentioned variables.
Immigration and social services: The Spanish case
According to the figures of the National Institute of Statistics (2019a), the total number of foreign population in Spain amounts to 4,848,516 (January 2019).
At the end of the 1990s, the levels of the Spanish active population began to decrease as a result of declining birth rates over the course of the demographic transition (Santos Rego and Lorenzo, 2003). Therefore, it was necessary to resort to the employment of foreign workers. Specifically, for the period 1995–2008, Spain was the EU-15 country with the largest increase in the foreign population. By 1995, more than half a million immigrants resided in Spain, whereas in 2008, the rate already exceeded 5 million. This made the state rank second among the EU-15 members with the highest rates of foreigners, being only surpassed by Germany (Verdugo-Matés, 2017).
The economic crisis of 2008–2009 quickly turned Spain into one of the countries with the highest rates of unemployment for natives and immigrants. The government reduced entry flows for labour purposes and the open policy towards immigration quickly disappeared. The economic crisis led to a period of severe cuts to social policy spending and a striking increase of the poverty and social exclusion rate (Noguera, 2018).
It is also worth recalling that the rise of the unemployment rate has not only been more marked in Spain than in the rest of the European Union, but also more pronounced in the foreign population (Blázquez and Herrarte, 2017); in 2019, it reached 20.7% (National Institute of Statistics, 2019b).
Nevertheless, the economic development of the country before the crisis was possible because of the incorporation of immigrant workers to the labour market, principally in those sectors that required a massive workforce (FOESSA Foundation, 2019; Verdugo-Matés, 2017). It is worth mentioning that newcomers normally participate in low-skilled, low-wage, labour-intensive jobs in the construction, domestic or tertiary sectors (FOESSA Foundation, 2019; King, 2000). Precisely, these sectors feature the highest rates of temporary contracting (Porthé et al., 2007) and unemployment (OECD, 2019).
All of the above reveals the extension of precariousness among the collective of immigrants, which emerges through factors like instability, low income levels, as well as inadequate labour conditions (Ronda- Pérez et al., 2014).
The strong employer-oriented labour migration that characterised Spain determined the forms that allow foreigners to access universal programmes and services, which are either for having a job in the labour market or through their residence in the country (Fernández-Borrero et al., 2016).
In the Spanish legal framework, services for foreigners are considered as a part of the public social services network (Anleu and García-Moreno, 2014; Godás et al., 2018), and they are considered to have the right to benefit from social services in the same conditions as the native population.
With the enactment of the Organic Law 4/2000, of 11 January, social and labour integration of the immigrant population started to be an exclusive competence of the state. Even so, each region has its own specific law on social services 1 (Alguacil, 2012), which makes social policies highly sensitive to administrative and political arbitrariness (Noguera, 2018).
Currently, due to the fragmentation of the Spanish labour market and increasingly weakened social expenditure, this population’s social protection depends exclusively on their own family networks (Lorenzo, 2009) and on an even more diminished social fabric (Moreno-Colom and De Alós, 2016).
Now, more than 10 years after the impact of the crisis of 2008 in the country, social services continue to face its consequences: a harsh background of budgetary cuts, serious challenges to maintain pay-outs and benefits, and an increasing restriction of immigrant policies. Of all the social protection systems, the social services network has been the most adversely affected by the crisis. Indeed, the help of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) is often required, since some administrative situations cannot be responded to adequately (Agrela and Dietz, 2005; Anleu and García-Moreno, 2014).
All of this has developed, besides, in a context in which a threatening social discourse is flourishing: the idea of delegitimising social workers’ mission with a collective that is considered as an ‘undeserving’ client (Barberis and Boccagni, 2014). Clearly, migrants are thought to be overrepresented among those in need of welfare support and benefits (Williams and Graham, 2014). However, and contrary to the public opinion, it has been demonstrated that they resort to welfare benefits to a lesser extent than the Spanish population, something that increases their risk of poverty (Muñoz de Bustillo and Grande, 2017).
Motivational factors in social work practice
Social work is usually described as an activity that emerged from a globalising approach since it has been traditionally associated with the union of diverse social disciplines. Concretely, this profession responds to a specific area of social needs, stemming from the social intervention (Conde, 2003; Rubí, 1990).
The social worker role promotes social change, problem-solving in human relationships, and the empowerment and liberation of people in order to enhance their wellbeing (Healy, 2001; United Nations Centre for Human Rights, 1994). In this sense, this profession is intimately related to the context of the institutions in which their work takes place (Conde, 2003). Moreover, the studies focused on the profile of social work students showed that they come, mostly, from modest social spheres that promote the development of social commitment, solidarity and equity values.
Currently, new demands required by the profession are due, fundamentally, to an economic crisis that led to two new scenarios. The first is related to the emergence of new profiles of those attended to, while the second refers to the discipline itself, focusing on the influence that this new situation may have at the theoretical and methodological level (García-Moreno and Anleu-Hernández, 2019). It is in the first juncture, occupied by these new social realities, where the social work with immigrants takes place.
Nowadays, there is no doubt that, in a context of social changes and diversification of needs after an economic crisis, social workers’ labour has been highly hindered (Godás et al., 2018). It is therefore important to analyse which factors motivate them, how they deal with these new challenges, and how that influences their work with immigrants.
Albeit there is no consensual definition of motivation, it can be described, in broad terms, as a psychological state that influences the level of engagement to perform any activity while pursuing an objective (Rackauskiene et al., 2013). In organisational psychology, labour motivation is defined as the set of internal and external forces that initiate behaviours related to work and determine its form, direction, intensity and persistence (Pinder, 2008).
Herzberg et al. (1959) were the first authors that framed the difference between the intrinsic and extrinsic factors of work. They argued that a conduct is intrinsically motivated when it is executed because of the interest it generates. It refers to the satisfaction of those needs that relate to personal causes, which can be met through the fulfilment of the work activity itself (Alcover et al., 2004). Otherwise, an extrinsically motivated behaviour is that which is developed with the aim of achieving an external reward (salaries, bonuses or another financial stimulus) or avoiding a punishment (Aguado, 2019). Work is here understood as the principal means to reach a specific end, since the job itself does not produce any motivating effect.
Previous research on job satisfaction has shown that high labour satisfaction correlates with intrinsic aspects of the job, such as communicating with clients, organising events and achieving results. On the contrary, the activities that produced the lowest satisfaction were those related to bureaucracy (Rackauskiene et al., 2013).
Direct contact with clients seems to be a source of satisfaction in the majority of the studies (Papadaki and Papadaki, 2006; Penna et al., 1995), along with progressing with the cases and feeling helpful (Balloch et al., 1998; McLean, 1999; Negi et al., 2019). Creating something positive for their clients and for themselves (De Fátima and Moisés, 2004), the challenge that their work provides and the amount of responsibility (McLean, 1999) are also found to be positive. Generally speaking, social workers appear to be well motivated by direct contact with service users and they feel that their job can make a real difference to people’s lives (Huxley et al., 2005).
Being part of a team usually proves to be satisfactory (Balloch et al., 1998; Bradley and Sutherland, 1995; McLean, 1999; Negi et al., 2019; Poulin, 1995). Indeed, many studies emphasise the importance of receiving support from colleagues (Bennett et al., 1993; Bradley and Sutherland, 1995), since fellowship can buffer against the negative effects of workload on burnout (Bennett et al., 1993; Koeske and Koeske, 1989).
Otherwise, unpaid overtime, staff shortages, lack of resources, insecurity caused by organisational changes (Albrithen and Yalli, 2012; Coffey et al., 2004; Penna et al., 1995; Russell and McGinnity, 2014), but also a low level of participation in decision-making and the management style (Bradley and Sutherland, 1995; Papadaki and Papadaki, 2006) seem to be stressing factors for social workers.
Related to the way the department is managed, other variables represent sources of distress, such as the attention paid to suggestions, the rate of pay and role ambiguity (Balloch et al., 1998). Cutbacks and the lack of career opportunities or chances of promotion were demonstrated to produce stress and job dissatisfaction (McLean, 1999). But the main organisational factors that cause frustration are the weight of bureaucracy, heavy workload, resource limitations and the lack of supervision (Marsh and Triseliotis, 1996; Vyas and Luk, 2010).
In general terms, it is concluded that the main sources of social workers’ satisfaction are intrinsic work aspects, while the major causes of their dissatisfaction are related to organisational and extrinsic factors (Bradley and Sutherland, 1995; McLean, 1999; Papadaki and Papadaki, 2006; Penna et al., 1995).
Method
Participants
In this research, responses from 100 community social services professionals from 43 localities of Galicia (Spain) who work with immigrants were collected. In total, 8% of them are men (62.5% are aged between 31 and 40 years, and 37.5% between 41 and 60 years), while 92% are women (17.4% aged between 20 and 30 years, 39.6% between 31 and 50 years, and 43% between 51 and 60 years).
The socio-professional profiles of the sample from which data were drawn are summarised in Table 1.
Description of the sample (percentages).
Measurement instrument
The designed questionnaire consists of the following three parts: 34 closed questions about sociodemographic and labour aspects, extracted from the Spanish survey of quality of work life (Department for Work and Immigration, 2009), a Likert-type Motivation Scale (Hare, 2004; Rackauskiene et al., 2013) with 31 items, and an open-ended question on the five most satisfying and unsatisfying aspects of their work life.
The final scale scores an acceptable reliability (Cronbach’s α = .867), as well as the subscales that represent extrinsic (10 items, Cronbach’s α = .849) and intrinsic motivation (seven items, Cronbach’s α = .857). Both dimensions were elaborated with a principal component factor analysis with Varimax rotation (KMO = .825), as shown in Table 2. The first factor (Eigenvalue = 6.234, Explained Variance = 34.63%) refers to the dimension of extrinsic motivation, while the second (Eigenvalue = 2.260, Explained Variance = 12.55%) belongs to the dimension of intrinsic motivation. In both cases, the item response is scored between 1 (strongly agree) and 5 (strongly disagree).
Representative items of the two motivation dimensions.
Regarding extrinsic motivation, work environment (relationships with workmates, management, physical environment and working time) and job autonomy (participation in the policymaking process and relevance when suggesting new ideas) are the factors that best define this dimension. Contrarily, intrinsic motivation is reflected in the value ascribed to job performance (utility, help and self-satisfaction) and the value of one’s own work (exciting and interesting). These two variables are strongly related to job satisfaction.
Likewise, this study aimed to establish differentiating profiles according to the professions of the sample. To this end, the three most representative groups were selected (see Table 1): social workers, family educators and technical staff. Using the Chi-square test, a comparison of their socio-professional characteristics was carried out: type of employment contract, workplace, trade union membership, work hours per week, type of workday, distance between home and workplace, seniority, work adjustment training, continuous training, estimation of the salary, social benefits, considering changing jobs and the granting of leave of absence. No statistically significant differences between the three groups were found. Therefore, the subsequent data analyses were carried out with the entire sample, without establishing differentiated profiles.
The scale displays a consistent relationship with a group of labour satisfaction measurements (see Table 3). The first is a global indicator of job satisfaction, and the next three (own work, supervisors and colleagues) belong to the Job Descriptive Index (Smith et al., 1969).
Relationships between the extrinsic and intrinsic motivation rates and other job satisfaction measurements.
p ⩽ 0.01.
Procedure
The questionnaires were distributed in person in 45 localities, where the social worker that the research group had contacted previously handed them in to the rest of the staff. After 30 days, the completed questionnaires were sent back to the research group’s office. In total, responses from 43 localities were gathered.
Once they had been codified, the data were treated using the statistical package IBM SPSS Statistics 24. Independence and reliability criteria were established for the open-ended questions. For that purpose, the content analysis technique was used, and three members of the research group separately codified all the collected data in the following categories (Peiró and Prieto, 1996):
Job: intrinsic interest, variety, learning opportunities, quantity, success possibilities and method control.
Salary: quantity, equity and distribution method.
Promotion: training opportunities and promotion bases.
Recognition: compliments, credits and critics.
Benefits: leave of absence, insurances and holidays.
Labour conditions: working hours, breaks and physical environment (ventilation, temperature, aesthetics, etc.).
Supervision: style, skills and personal relationships.
Workmates: competence, support and friendship.
Management: benefits policy and salaries.
The reliability of the three intercoders was measured considering that the criteria for an acceptable score of agreement can range between 0.70 and 0.80, according to Krippendorf (1990).
Research findings
Linear regression analysis
The next objective consisted of analysing the social and professional variables that determined high or low levels in both types of motivation. To this end, two linear regression analyses were conducted, using the stepwise method for each type of motivation. The results are summarised in Table 4.
Results of the linear regression analysis for each type of motivation.
VIF: variance inflation factors.
When taking the extrinsic motivation rate as a criterion variable, the analysis presents an Explained Variance of 20.6%, with a Coefficient of Multiple Determination of 0.181, which demonstrates a clear predictive association between extrinsic motivation and the variables making up the equation. However, it also indicates the existence of other factors that were not included in the study. The variables with the greatest weight refer, with a negative sign, to the length of the working day, bringing work home and the distance between home and the workplace. This reveals that a decrease in the weight of these factors promotes an increase in extrinsic motivation, concretely in terms of work environment, as shown in the previous factorial analysis (see Table 3).
With respect to intrinsic motivation, the analysis presents an Explained Variance of 29%, with a Coefficient of Multiple Determination of 0.25, which also demonstrates a clear predictive association between intrinsic motivation and the included variables, this time having a positive sign. The factors with the greatest weight are related to seniority, salary, and the possibility of updating professional training, in terms of experience, salary and re-training.
Qualitative findings
The last of the objectives was aimed at checking, once more, the relationships between the direct responses about the satisfactory and unsatisfactory aspects of their job in the two motivational dimensions, but this time in qualitative terms. To this end, the open-ended questions were included in the categories established previously according to their reliability rates (see Table 5).
Reliability rates for the agreement between intercoders.
S(n), IS(n): number of satisfactory and unsatisfactory elements.
Overall, the sample mentioned 263 satisfactory (53.56%) and 228 unsatisfactory elements (46.44%). The categories in which the professionals highlighted more satisfactory elements are those referring to work, supervision and co-workers. Whereas the categories with more unsatisfactory aspects are related to salary, professional recognition, relationships with the management team and work conditions.
The data referring to the factorial (see Table 3) and the regression analysis (see Table 4) allowed the definition of the components of each type of motivation. Therefore, the 491 responses could be classified according to their extrinsic or intrinsic content, as shown in Table 6.
Satisfactory and unsatisfactory results of each type of motivation.
As seen earlier, the significant elements that provide job satisfaction are those related to self-fulfilment and the rewarding character of respondents’ work, which, at the same time, allow them to feel helpful towards their users. In this sense, positive compliments have proven to strengthen this perception. Teamwork, as supported by the literature, is also a powerful protector against frustration and burnout.
On the other hand, job dissatisfaction is especially expressed in organisational terms: unclear functions, bureaucracy, excess of norms and split shifts. Other factors refer to work overload, lack of support and credits, and cuts (such as wage cuts and loss of rights).
Discussion and conclusions
The findings of this study are consistent with the broader social work literature. In the first place, intrinsic reward has been found to be associated with commitment and work satisfaction (Balloch et al., 1998; Huxley et al., 2005; McLean, 1999; Negi et al., 2019), which is supported by the results of this research.
Regarding intrinsic motivation, the feeling of being helpful and doing useful work for themselves and the society seems to relate with personal and labour self-fulfilment (Rackauskiene et al., 2013). In this sense, the direct component of social workers’ practice, in terms of constant contact with clients, boosts their work satisfaction (Huxley et al., 2005; Penna et al., 1995). Autonomy is positively correlated with job satisfaction (Arches, 1991; De Fátima and Moisés, 2004; McLean, 1999), and it is expressed in this study in terms of participation in policymaking, elaboration of alternative work methods and relevance when suggesting new ideas. Re-training, salary and seniority are highlighted as other intrinsic sources of satisfaction.
With reference to extrinsic positive motivation, being part of a team is shown to be the main source of labour satisfaction (Negi et al., 2019; Poulin, 1995), especially when it comes to fellowship, teamwork and fluid communication (Bennett et al., 1993; Rackauskiene et al., 2013). In this dimension, physical environment, good relationships with the management team and labour flexibility also seem to enhance it (Negi et al., 2019).
Contrarily, the major causes of dissatisfaction are related to organisational and extrinsic work aspects (Papadaki and Papadaki, 2006; Russell and McGinnity, 2014).
For instance, the literature (Marsh and Triseliotis, 1996) identified that the weight of bureaucracy, excessive workload, and lack of support and supervision are related to frustration. This study seems to support these results; other remarkable factors are the excess of norms and the lack of clarity (Balloch et al., 1998). In this research, excessive working hours, split shifts, work overload and long distances between home and the workplace have been proven to impact negatively on the extrinsic satisfaction of the sample (Bradley and Sutherland, 1995; Marsh and Triseliotis, 1996; Penna et al., 1995).
In relation to the intrinsic sources of dissatisfaction, wage cuts, loss of rights and lack of support and credits are the most representative variables (Albrithen and Yalli, 2012; Balloch et al., 1998; Russell and McGinnity, 2014). Another important factor is the lack of promotion, which appears as an extrinsic and intrinsic element (McLean, 1999).
Overall, the results of this research support the hypothesis about the intrinsic character of job satisfaction among social workers and the extrinsic content of their dissatisfaction, mainly in terms of organisation (Bradley and Sutherland, 1995; McLean, 1999; Papadaki and Papadaki, 2006; Penna et al., 1995). Exceptions to this premise are the extrinsic factors that provide satisfaction, such as teamwork, labour flexibility and good coordination between services and institutions.
Policy changes and diverse measures should be taken in order to diminish the variables related to dissatisfaction. For instance, since workload appears to be one of the most recurrent factors, organisations should hire more staff that could help social workers with paperwork and deadlines. In fact, the results of the study of Papadaki and Papadaki (2006) demonstrated that the higher the number of members in a team, the higher their rates of work satisfaction.
Furthermore, these professionals need to dedicate most of their time to intervene directly with clients and to study their cases in-depth, relegating paperwork to second place. It is also recommended to avoid split shifts and to provide some flexibility to reduce time pressure and workload. Likewise, public administrations should increase the state funding of welfare organisations to improve their work conditions and salaries.
Regarding the professional recognition of social workers, the management team should enhance their opportunities for promotion and professional development. For instance, participation in the work dynamics and organisational processes is an aspect that can contribute to the improvement of the services provided.
In addition, the hierarchical lines of communication within the management team should be diminished. It is fundamental to recognise social workers’ need for support and guidance and to give them enough credit for their labour, while providing them with sufficient autonomy.
On the whole, it is important to mention that the results of this study cannot be generalised beyond our sample of social workers in Galicia. Our quantitative and qualitative findings should also be interpreted with caution, as our sample has a relatively small size and needs to be understood in the context in which it is framed.
Despite its limitations, this research provides a valuable contribution to knowledge as it highlights that, in a background of high workloads, harsh budget cuts and staff shortages, social workers resort to diverse sources of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation to reduce stress and burnout.
Even so, further research is needed to better comprehend how social workers cope with stress-inducing factors, and to identify which are the main sources of their job satisfaction in other localities with a high presence of immigrants.
Footnotes
Declaration of conflicting interests
The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship and/or publication of this article.
Funding
This work was supported by the research project ‘The quality of social services seen by immigrant users and professional teams: evaluation and socio-educational consequences’ (10PXIB211120PR), funded by the Government of Galicia-Xunta de Galicia (Spain).
