Psychosocial and integration needs of unaccompanied children in Greece

Abstract

This article seeks to fill the research gap on the psychosocial and integration needs of unaccompanied children and the challenges they encounter to reach autonomy and social integration. To address this issue, the study utilized a qualitative research survey interviewing 18 field professionals, which indicated that the key challenges include insufficient preparation, institutionalization, uncertainty about the future, asylum procedures, and social exclusion, while proposing the implementation of an integration plan focusing on education, vocational training, and contact with the local community. This article aims to offer a better understanding of children’s needs and how practitioners could protect children more effectively.

Keywords

Asylum autonomy Greece psychosocial needs social integration unaccompanied children

Introduction

The 2030 Agenda of the United Nations enshrines the principle that every human being should reap the benefits of prosperity and enjoy minimum standards of well-being. The Sustainable Development Goals aim to ensure access to education, sustainable development and information, and a higher standard of living, while at the same time aiming to promote the rule of law, ensuring equal access to justice, and promoting inclusive and participatory decision-making. These goals and targets, when effectively translated into action, constitute the essential elements of social inclusion. Social inclusion is a process that ensures that those at risk of poverty and social exclusion are afforded the opportunities and resources necessary to participate in socioeconomic, political, and cultural life, and to enjoy a standard of living that is considered normal within society, access to participatory decision-making and their fundamental rights (United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, 2016).

Autonomy is understood as a complex process which is in continuous development throughout an individual’s lifetime and via interaction with others, and which is based on three basic dimensions: processes of reflection and decision-making, processes involving close ‘others’ (family, friends, and partner), and community and social references. The transition to adulthood is a challenging and complex process in the life of an adolescent and in order to ensure its success, young people need to acquire the processes and skills associated with autonomy. These skills enable young people to cope with adulthood and make decisions in complex situations, such as entering the employment market, continuing education, organizing personal finances, self-care, building social networks, and solving everyday problems (Bernal Romero et al., 2020).

This research article focuses on exploring the parameters of the integration and autonomy of unaccompanied children at micro-, mezzo-, and macro-levels, a field of research that remains unmapped in Greece (Papadatou et al., 2019). In particular, the transition of unaccompanied children from adolescence and residence in a shelter to adulthood and independent living is a turning point in the development and life path of young adults (Oxfam, 2021).

The present research attempts to record the psychosocial needs of minors, the conditions required to ensure smooth autonomy, and the factors that determine the best interests and sustainable solutions for their future. At the same time, it seeks to highlight the challenges faced by both unaccompanied minors and the professionals who support them in the different types of accommodation structures, and the shortcomings of the current state social policy when it comes to the integration and well-being of minors. Finally, it will highlight, based on the words and experience of the professionals who participated in the research, existing and proposed good practices for the appropriate preparation and smooth autonomy of the minors served.

Background to the problem

This section aims to provide the context of the discussion by highlighting the major issues affecting unaccompanied children in Greece, thus preparing for a better understanding of the challenges social care professionals must overcome in order to protect children. In recent years, it is estimated that a large number of third-country nationals have crossed the borders of Greece in order to claim asylum. Unaccompanied children constitute a particularly vulnerable refugee population group in Greece, mainly comprising adolescent boys. In accordance with Article 2 of Directive 2011/95/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council (2011), an unaccompanied child (UAC) is defined as a minor who arrives on the territory of the member states unaccompanied by an adult responsible for him or her in accordance with the law or the practice of the member state concerned, and where no adult exercises custody over him or her. The term also covers a minor who has been left unaccompanied following his or her entry into the territory of the member state. In March 2022, the total number of unaccompanied children in Greece was 2079, the majority of whom (1626 UAC) reside in long-term accommodation facilities (EKKA, 2022). It is important to highlight that the fieldwork took place in 2021, when the total number of unaccompanied minors in Greece, according to statistical data provided by EKKA, was 2131, the majority of whom (1530 UAC) resided in long-term accommodation facilities. Considering the vulnerability of unaccompanied children, the main concern of the Greek state and civil society should be to protect and defend their best interests based on the International Convention on the Rights of the Child (ICCPR) (United Nations General Assembly Resolution 44/25, 1989) and relevant EU guidelines. However, the Greek state has been heavily criticized for its reception and standards of accommodation, protection, and care provided for unaccompanied children. In addition, the absence of legal guardianship and children’s legal representation, the practice of protective detention, lengthy asylum procedures, and unsafe housing conditions for children complete a rather lengthy and discreditable list of violations of which unaccompanied children find themselves victims (Greek Ombudsman, 2018, 2019).

The long and time-consuming process of how state organizations handle asylum applications affects unaccompanied children’s psychological state and protection rights (Buchanan and Kallinikaki, 2020). In terms of accommodating and housing unaccompanied children, even though the goal is for each unaccompanied child to have a place of safe accommodation, the number of such places available in shelters and semi-independent living apartments is relatively limited; several accommodation structures are located outside the urban fabric, while a large number of unaccompanied children are recorded as either homeless or living in other types of unsafe housing (Sarantou and Theodoropoulou, 2019). Placement in a children’s shelter constitutes a turning point, insofar as it provides the children with basic needs, the opportunity to network with their peers, and build skills that would facilitate their integration into life in Greece. When youths turn 18, they are transferred to adult accommodation, where they can continue to focus on their personal development. Children who could not be placed in a shelter before they turn 18, however, are typically unable to access any kind of accommodation facility in adulthood, remaining homeless or relying on underground economies for survival, thereby exposing them to risk of exploitation and harm (Mishra et al., 2020). In addition, Greece has been criticized for its failure to provide a substantive and permanent representative or guardian for unaccompanied children and for the fragmentation of representation responsibilities across different actors (Greek Ombudsman, 2018; Sarantou and Theodoropoulou, 2019).

Due to the complexity of the situation, unaccompanied children’s needs are demoted or only partly met, mostly in camps where the risk of maltreatment, abuse, or harm increases, with displacement affecting children on behavioral, emotional, and cognitive levels. Moreover, most unaccompanied children tend to see their situation as purely temporary and try to follow their parents’ wish to move on to a ‘promised land’ in Europe (of which Greece is not one). As a result most of them perceive schooling as a proof of living in the country but they chose neither to enroll in school nor focus on their personal development (Buchanan and Kallinikaki, 2020). The transition from face-to-face to digital teaching in schools during the COVID-19 pandemic led to further difficulties (Barn et al., 2021). The fact that some unaccompanied children are sleeping on the streets leaves them exposed to violence and abuse by both state (e.g., police, welfare services, and migration officials) and nonstate (nongovernmental organization [NGO] workers) actors. Furthermore, the practice of unofficial ‘protective custody’ thrusts them into ‘invisibility’, while also increasing their involvement in illegal and criminal activities and thereby heightening the risk of sexual exploitation, trafficking, substance abuse, and kidnapping. At the same time, local communities perceive refugee children as temporary residents who are not interested in integrating into Greek society and who pose a threat to public order (Kovner et al., 2021). The perception that children seeking asylum are dependent on and burdensome to the state is evidenced in the work of refugee agencies, government and nongovernment organizations, as well as in media coverage, and can severely impact the lives of these children. The dependence discourse denies under-18s the opportunity to take part in supposedly ‘adult’ activities, often reflecting a Western, conservative view of childhood, while at the same time undermining any trust refugees may have in the systems of protection (Gill and Good, 2019).

The consequences of the COVID-19 pandemic and the restrictive measures introduced to reduce its spread have significantly impacted living conditions and have further affected an already fragmented framework of child protection. Shelters were quarantined for a long period of time, children were isolated from their friends and daily activities, and school was interrupted, with long delays in processing legal claims and issuing the Provisional Insurance and Healthcare Number (PAAYPA). This has resulted in children expressing nostalgia and concern for the health and living conditions of their families, feeling bored and angry at the restrictive measures and difficulties they face in accessing healthcare services. During quarantine, social workers looked to maintain a routine and sense of belonging by focusing on individual self-care and cohabitation issues, teamwork, and learning through daily activities (Barn et al., 2021).

The circumstances outlined above have adversely impacted the already burdened decision-making system when it comes to deciding on the best interests of and finding sustainable solutions for the future of these unaccompanied children on the part of both the Greek state and humanitarian organizations. It is worth mentioning at this point that the general view of childhood as a linear and universal process dependent on chronological age reinforces the assumption that children need protecting, and are unable to assess and defend what is in their own ‘best interests’ (Gill and Good, 2019). Despite the fact that there is as yet no officially defined procedure for identifying sustainable solutions, according to international treaties and research literature, the following are most prevalent:

Integration in the host country

Family reunification with a relative in another European country

Voluntary return and reintegration in the country of origin

Relocation to another European country

(Asylum Information Database, 2020; Greek Council for Refugees, 2015; UN High Commissioner for Refugees [UNHCR], 2014, 2021).

Staff at the accommodation facilities do play a vital role in providing hospitality and care in order to respond effectively to unaccompanied children’s basic and psycho-emotional needs. More specifically, they have to confront a variety of cultural challenges, local community prejudice, ethical dilemmas raised by the enforcement of policies and legislation against the best interests of unaccompanied children, as well as practical difficulties related to the working environment and working conditions. These are all stress factors, creating work tension and burnout, which in turn impact workers’ physical and mental health and the quality of services provided (Eleftheriadi, 2021; Papadatou et al., 2019).

In conclusion, autonomy and the gradual transition of children to adulthood are major challenges during their stay in accommodation facilities, and ensuring they are properly prepared for autonomy and adulthood is key to achieving integration. Integration is a two-level process, starting from the child’s entry into the country and providing appropriate reception conditions, protection, and access to services to meet basic needs. This is followed by the level of integration, which concerns information and access to the employment market, education, healthcare, and participation in the community (Ministry of Migration and Asylum, 2019). According to the literature, the adoption of the theoretical framework of the strength-based approach, intensive case management, and specialized vocational guidance and educational services, as well as the two-way integration of third-country nationals with the active participation of both refugees and migrants and local communities are proposed to enhance social inclusion (Leontitsis et al., 2020; Van Raemdonck et al., 2021).

Research methodology

A qualitative research design was selected to serve the purposes of the inquiry and answer the research question of what the parameters of inclusion and autonomy of minors actually are. More specifically, semistructured interviews were conducted with the aim of creating active interaction between the researcher and respondents, in order to listen, observe, and understand their perceptions as important dimensions of social reality.

Research participants were 18 employees of various disciplines (Table 1) working in accommodation facilities for unaccompanied minors in mainland Greece who had direct contact with unaccompanied children and were involved in their day-to-day lives. The majority had more than 2 years’ working experience in jobs related to refugees and migration. Interviews were conducted online between June and August 2021, each lasting approximately 50 minutes.

Table 1.

Participants’ demographics.

Discipline	Gender
Social workers (3)	Female (13)
Psychologists (2)	Male (5)
Legal advisors (1)
Social caregivers (3)
Group coordinators (2)
Educators (2)
Employability consultants (2)
Guardians (3)

The list of questions that provided a framework for the semistructured interviews centered primarily on the main questions and research objectives, consisting of three main thematic categories, each broken down into several questions. Following are a sample of these questions that are provided for each thematic category:

Category I: Psychosocial needs of minors in terms of autonomy and inclusion.

What are the main challenges an unaccompanied child faces on their path to adulthood? How do these affect their psychosocial condition and well-being?

Category II: Challenges – difficulties in meeting the aforementioned needs.

What difficulties have been identified in terms of meeting children’s needs at a micro-level (individual asylum seekers)?

Category III: Suggestions and good practices.

Which existing and current tactics/practices/policies (regarding the inclusion and empowerment of beneficiaries) do you consider successful and why?

Thematic analysis (Braun and Clarke, 2006; Tsiolis, 2015) was chosen as the method for analyzing the qualitative data collected from the interviews. The basic steps that were followed in analyzing the data are listed below. It is, however, worth noting that these steps were not followed linearly but often circled back to earlier stages. The recorded interviews were first transcribed and then carefully read as a means of becoming familiar with the data. The dataset was then carefully examined with a view to outlining the meanings of the text and as a basis for exploring the discourse of the interviewees. This was then followed by an initial coding of the data, grouping the meanings and patterns of speech into ‘chunks’ of shared meaning, that is, the codes. These codes and their subthemes were then reviewed to allow new themes to emerge; the frequency with which themes were observed was subsequently recorded, with the resulting sections corresponding to the questions of the interview guide and each thematic section consisting of a multitude of codes based on interviewees’ responses.

In the interests of preserving anonymity and confidentiality and protecting personal data during both the interviews and the process of recording and processing the data, interviewees were informed about the objectives and context of the research, how the discussion would be recorded, and provided with a consent form for signature (Iosifidis, 2008). The consent form was accompanied by an official letter setting out that this research was being carried out, with the ethical approval of the relevant university department, in part to fulfill the requirements of the author’s master’s thesis. The participants were also informed of the possibility of publication and that their identity would be protected and secured. Reading the consent form and signing it was a basic condition for participation in the interview process. Finally, after the completion of the interviews and their transcription, the recorded files were deleted, and any reference to the interviewees will be anonymous.

Research results

Psychosocial needs of minors in terms of autonomy and inclusion

Toward adulthood: challenges facing unaccompanied minors

This article seeks to record minors’ psychosocial needs, the necessary requirements for smooth autonomy, and the factors that determine the best interests and sustainable solutions for their future. Participants determined the needs of the minors in light of the psychosocial approach, placing special emphasis on a safe living environment, the existence of a support network, the need for social integration, and the development of a sense of belonging. At the same time, they pointed out that the psychosocial needs of unaccompanied children are significantly influenced by their legal status and the progress of their asylum application, with their country of origin determining access to legalization documents:

The stress of obtaining legalization documents and time-consuming asylum procedures create a feeling of uncertainty for children. Those who do not feel safe do not set goals and priorities. (Social Worker)

Children from Pakistan and Bangladesh mainly want to work directly to help their families financially, while most children I have met from Afghanistan and Somalia want to leave for another country in Europe. (Guardian)

The transition to adulthood and independent living is a pivotal stage in their later life and is fraught with challenges. In particular, the feeling of uncertainty about the future, time-consuming asylum procedures, and the transition from an institutional setting to independent living were highlighted as key challenges. In addition, some interviewees also mentioned unsafe living conditions in shelters, misinformation, and the risk of exploitation by criminal networks of expatriates, the pressure from their family to work, and finally, the racism and xenophobia targeted at them by the local community:

They [the children] are permanently in a state of ‘upheaval in upheaval’ and because they don’t feel safe, they don’t set goals and priorities. (Social Worker)

They constantly wonder ‘will I make it?’, ‘where will I stay?’, ‘will anyone help me’. (Psychologist)

In order to work directly, the children choose their own informal networks, networks of fellow nation[al]s. This is very common in the camps, where there is a general population [with which] they come into contact . . . they are misinformed by networks of compatriots and because they do not have access to the necessary documents for work (e.g. Social Insurance No.), and thus they [become] involved in illegal activities. (Legal Advisor)

Key competences for autonomy and integration

In order to address the aforementioned challenges and to ensure children’s smooth transition to adulthood, it is considered important during their stay in shelters to cultivate their skills and furnish them with the necessary tools. According to the research participants, education, learning the Greek language, and informing children about access to work, as well as strengthening self-maintenance and independent living skills, psychological support, and networking with the local community are the essential elements.

Furthermore, access to education, work, and medical care are key axes for the integration of unaccompanied children and their preparation for adult life. However, all the interviewees reported that children do not receive the necessary information during their stay in shelters or other forms of accommodation. Once they have left the accommodation structure, the majority of young adults interrupt their studies, neglecting the importance of their education and the procedures they should follow. In terms of access to work, although they receive some basic information about the documents they require in order to be able to work, they are rarely informed about their employment rights resulting, as mentioned previously, in rising incidents of labor exploitation. Finally, participants reported that they themselves undertake the complete planning and processing of children’s medical appointments. At this point, it is worth noting that the responses from the two workers in a semiautonomous living program were different, as this specific accommodation program has a preeminent integration purpose, and the beneficiaries are actively involved in the aforementioned procedures:

All three sectors are important, it’s basically their demand, but they don’t have access to the information, that’s why there’s so much exploitation. Sometimes they don’t even claim the information because they don’t think they deserve it. (Employability Consultant)

Determining the best interests of and sustainable solutions for unaccompanied minors

Interviewees provided a number of different responses when it comes to ensuring the best interests of unaccompanied minors and identifying the factors that determine this. These are specifically respecting the child’s rights, safeguarding their physical and mental health, protecting the minor, ensuring safe living conditions, and respecting the child’s own wishes. Participants’ best interests and the notion of sustainable solutions are, according to participants, quite similar, with several interviewees considering the two terms synonymous. Possible sustainable solutions include integration in the host country, family reunification, and relocation to another European country:

Often [the best interest] is judged hastily and decisions are made without the consent of the minor, [the best interest] is often used as candy to justify decisions. (Legal Advisor)

[In terms of] whether there is a supportive framework for the child, viable solutions are considered [to be] family reunification, relocation or asylum, but not the return to the country of origin. The protection of the child and the prospects for growth and development should be ensured. (Guardian)

It is important to point out that despite the fact the literature suggests repatriation as a viable solution (Greek Council for Refugees, 2015), a number of interviewees expressed the exact opposite opinion, arguing that such an alternative cannot ensure the welfare of the child.

Challenges – difficulties in meeting aforementioned needs

Participants identified and defined the challenges they encounter in meeting the integration needs of unaccompanied children at micro- (unaccompanied children), mezzo- (group of workers), and macro-level (sociopolitical level).

Challenges – difficulties at micro-level

As they grow toward adulthood, children are confronted with such challenges as the racism of the local community, the incomplete information they receive in the accommodation programs, and the institutionalization and passivation to which they succumb. Children often become withdrawn, trapped in the daily routine of the accommodation program and failing to invest efforts in preparing for autonomy:

The children experience discouragement. They just retire to their rooms and play with their mobile phones. (Social Caregiver)

It is difficult to integrate children into groups outside the structure, it relies on the individual effort of the workers. (Social Worker)

Challenges – difficulties at mezzo-level

In terms of the difficulties workers face in their efforts to support the integration needs of unaccompanied children, the majority of participants agreed that contact and cooperation with the local community is a significant obstacle. Professionals reported that they experience difficulties even when it comes to referring children to public- and private mental health institutions, in enrolling them in sports and other types of activities, as well as in enrolling them in state schools. These challenges relate principally to shelters and safe accommodation zones; although they are not typically encountered in semi-autonomous living arrangements, here, however, the difficulty of gaining acceptance from the local community does remain:

Children find it difficult to attend school. Reception classes start late and are only a few hours a day (about three) and some accommodation programs are so isolated that the distance to school is too long. (Educator)

In addition, research participants pointed out that many structures suffer from understaffing, with organizations not offering supervision and training for the professionals, as a result of which the group lacks shared orientation and vision. At the same time, they highlighted the relationship that professionals develop with the children, as due to cultural differences, diverse roles, and other variables, it is difficult to understand children’s needs and to motivate them:

The group struggles to manage the challenges of adolescence, coupled with the withdrawal of children and cultural differences. (Social Worker)

Consequences of COVID-19 pandemic

The outbreak of coronavirus impacted children, professionals, and everyday life within accommodation programs both at micro- and mezzo-levels. The COVID-19 pandemic led to significant delays in legal and other administrative procedures, while leaving children trapped inside the accommodation structures, in many cases with no possibility to attend school through remote education. The pandemic, of course, also impacted the professionals. Participants highlighted the fact that the restrictive measures imposed limited their actions and opportunities to engage with the local community to build children’s social confidence outside the accommodation programs, while for long periods, they had to work in reduced shifts within the dictates of the security regime:

The pandemic has been an obstacle for many actions. [It] has limited contact with the local community. Many professionals were afraid and limited themselves to covering the basic needs of the children. (Group Coordinator)

Challenges – difficulties at macro-level

Participants finally commented on the challenges and difficulties that arise in meeting the integration needs of unaccompanied children at macro-level by going beyond the boundaries of the local community and its groups, and emphasizing wider social systems at national- and politico-economic levels, and in state social policy. Professionals reported that the current government implements a social policy of exclusion, with no state provision for children’s smooth transition to adulthood and no access to healthcare. It is worth noting that reference was also made to the time-consuming asylum procedures and bureaucracy, as well as to the deplorable housing conditions in the open reception accommodation programs, the limited reception classes in state schools, the fragmentation of public services and the insufficient training with which participants were provided to serve the refugee population, all deficiencies for which Greece has received criticism at national and international levels:

Refugees face similar challenges to nationals and second-generation immigrants. [Intentionally] there is no social policy, provision for inclusion and allowances. Whoever survives [does so] alone. (Legal Advisor)

Their support relies exclusively on NGOs. Especially the support for people with

vulnerabilities. What will happen if the NGOs leave? (Psychologist)

Proposals and good practices for the integration and autonomy of unaccompanied minors

In the last part of the interview, participants were invited to highlight practices they consider to be successful or unsuccessful in terms of the integration of unaccompanied minors and make their own suggestions.

Identifying successful and unsuccessful practices in integration and autonomy of minors

Employees, specifically those working in safe zones (a temporary transit accommodation solution for vulnerable children located in open accommodation centers), agreed on the presence of an employability consultant, who is responsible through group and individual meetings for providing children with information on access to work, employment rights, creating a CV, and strategies for finding work. However, it is worth noting that, although the beneficiaries showed interest in the meetings, they were fragmented, and lacked continuity and a defined plan, mainly due to the demanding daily routine:

There were helpful individual and group meetings [for] the minors with the employability consultant, the social workers and external partners (e.g. General Confederation of Greek Workers) on access[ing the employment] market . . . these actions should be continuous, they should take place in the context of the operation of the structure, not in a fragmented way. (Social Worker)

Employees are also mentioned as a good practice bringing beneficiaries together with professionals such as cooks, carpenters, and engineers and encouraging individual training and skills development:

Minors showed interest in visiting local professionals, and cooking and carpentry workshops were set up within the structure with the help of staff. (Employability Consultant)

Interviewees within the semi-independent living framework suggested referring minors to the program as a good practice in preparing them for the transition to adulthood. Some did, however, suggest amending the referral procedure by, for example, increasing the number of apartments and places offered and making the referral and admission criteria more flexible, and therefore more accessible to a greater number of children:

The semi-independent living apartments have a purely inclusionary purpose. There is a lot of potential but changes are needed. [The number of] apartments need[s] to be increased, [there needs] to be more flexible selection criteria, there should be better infrastructure and there should be substantial integration actions. (Guardian)

In addition, two of the participants mentioned the success of instituting community meetings in helping resolve conflicts and problems through dialogue and communication between employees and beneficiaries. Community meetings or community groups refer to the group meetings held in the accommodation facilities involving all the beneficiaries or their representatives and all workers or representatives of specializations in order to discuss and exchange views on issues concerning living in the facility:

Community meetings should be established to involve minors in the decision-making, to solve the problems that exist and, together with the staff, to decide on the actions to be carried out in the facility. (Group Coordinator)

In terms of unsuccessful practices, employees focused on features of their daily work practice, such as the fact that the relationship between children and public or private institutions (e.g., arranging hospital appointments, visits to a private doctor, visits to a public office to obtain a tax identification number, and liaising with the Asylum Office) is handled by the staff without the minor being actively involved in such procedures. In addition, they emphasized the lack of a personalized approach in accommodation facilities with a large number of beneficiaries, which results in ‘homogenizing their wants and needs’, as well as the fact that the integration activities are not stable and that the staff does not have a shared approach or vision. Finally, they pointed out that COVID-19 limited the implementation of initiatives, with children restricted in the accommodation and professionals focusing on responding to their basic needs.

Interviewees’ proposals for strengthening integration and autonomy of minors

Here participants focused primarily on the accommodation framework for minors and staff at the accommodation facilities. They pointed out the need to create more semi-independent living structures so that adolescents could have the opportunity to be properly prepared for adulthood:

Strengthening semi-independent living programs will reduce the phenomenon of institutionalization. Camps and most other facilities are not safe place[s] for children. (Group Coordinator)

Suggestions made included collaboration with an employability consultant, continuous supervision and training of staff, strengthening informal education and training of children (e.g., continuous attendance in general and vocational education, preparation for certification of Greek language skills), bringing them together with the local community and, last but not least, informing minors about key integration areas, such as access to the employment market and healthcare, the importance of education, their basic rights, important and useful documents, and support services:

A program that aims to prepare them and provide them [with] information should be set up, targeted to the needs of children. . . Children should be connected to the community of integrated peers in different cities. (Social Worker)

In addition, employees suggested linking children with Experimental Vocational Apprenticeship Schools of the Employment Agency of the Labor Force and creating specialized vocational training programs. Some interviewees suggested continued monitoring and feedback (follow-up), even after beneficiaries have reached adulthood and left the shelter.

Discussion

Participants in this research, in their attempt to define the psychosocial needs of unaccompanied children, referred to individual, collective, sociocultural, and legal factors (e.g., need for safety, psychological support, mental resilience, and integration). However, they also emphasized additional factors such as the time-consuming asylum procedures, racism and discrimination within Greek society, and uncertainty about the future affecting coverage of needs and negatively impacting children’s psychosocial well-being (Papadatou et al., 2019). Moreover, they highlighted the impact of the type of accommodation programs children live in, as staying long-term in safe zones and hostels leads to children becoming institutionalized and withdrawn.

The formulation of an effective integration policy for unaccompanied children by the Greek state and humanitarian organizations requires that the best interests of children be taken into account and sustainable solutions found (Buchanan and Kallinikaki, 2020). Research participants, regardless of their specialization, and work context, mentioned a variety of factors determining best interests with common features being protection, the existence of a support network, respect for fundamental rights and emphasis on the child’s own wishes. There is still some doubt as to whether unaccompanied children are protected in EU member states and whether their human rights are protected as they should be (Barn et al., 2021).

Despite the fact that civil society organizations have attempted in recent years to improve the social integration prospects of unaccompanied children, racism and exclusion from the local community remain the most important challenges facing both children and professionals. Practitioners strive to fill the gaps in the system and support children effectively, yet they raise the issues of understaffing and inadequate education, training, and supervision of professionals resulting in a lack of shared vision, while their efforts are not oriented toward the inclusion of children but instead toward simply responding to basic needs. As a result, it could be argued that these gaps obstruct social integration and lead to children being marginalized and put at greater social risk (Barn et al., 2021; Kovner et al., 2021).

Furthermore, according to the research results, most of the challenges related to meeting the integration needs of unaccompanied children are positioned at the macro-, state-, and sociopolitical level. The lack of a competent central authority for child protection means any protection afforded is patchy, haphazard, and occasional. The inappropriate reception and accommodation conditions of unaccompanied children, the time-consuming asylum procedures, and the difficulty of accessing legalization and other useful documents lead to exclusion rather than inclusion, forcing children to consider it impossible to become equal members of society (Leontitsis et al., 2020).

Moreover, the spread of the COVID-19 virus significantly affected the daily life of minors in accommodation facilities and the daily work practice of professionals, while prohibiting the implementation of actions aimed at strengthening autonomy and integration. In addition, the variety of different types of accommodation programs included in this research highlighted that semi-independent living programs are the best practice for housing unaccompanied children, with significantly fewer challenges reported compared to shelters and safe accommodation zones despite the existing misunderstandings with the local community.

Conclusion

In conclusion, strengthening autonomy and social integration is essential for unaccompanied children seeking asylum as they grow toward adulthood. It is vital to understand that social care organizations and professionals emphasize the preparation of children for the transition to independent life through education and training, as training and deinstitutionalization offer fertile ground for the well-being, development, and social inclusion of unaccompanied children. The lack, however, of substantial state social policy and the social exclusion of refugees will continue to be perhaps the most important barrier to social integration. Moreover, results to date demonstrate the importance of regional and proximate social variables, as well as links between refugees’ biological, psychological, and community functioning (Eleftheriadi, 2021). Any effort to address the needs of this population must attend to the complexity of the wider context in which unaccompanied children live. More specifically, that implies that social workers working in this field need to be strengthened toward being able to understand the difficulties unaccompanied children experience, liaise with organizations, communities, and state services to protect children’s rights and at the same time advocate for these rights. Therefore, the role of social workers remains critical at all stages of reception, accommodation, and social integration of unaccompanied children.

Therefore, in the context of the development of preventive interventions, it is proposed that special priority be given to children, as the most vulnerable group who will likely make use of the relevant services as adults. Unaccompanied children are at risk of developing a variety of mental health disorders due to their background, which typically includes exposure to incidents of organized violence and criminal acts and their sense of displacement being relocated from their country of origin to a host country (Nikolaidis et al., 2017). Likewise, the mental resilience shown by unaccompanied children should be stressed. The design of interventions where emphasis is placed on the development of protective factors, while simultaneously reducing risk factors, will create a protective framework against the manifestation of later mental health disorders.

In conclusion, this article recommends that more targeted social care policies and social work interventions for host populations will enhance community engagement and wider social integration of newly arrived unaccompanied children and refugees in general. Social policies could be adapted to the cultural sensitivities of specific refugee groups, as adaptation interventions are likely to enhance implementation and improve access to available social services. Finally, the thorough and ongoing study of this specific issue will contribute both to further understanding the general and specific conditions surrounding the ‘invisible’ traumas that unaccompanied children carry and social work’s role in ‘healing’ them.

Study limitations

It is acknowledged that this research is also subject to certain limitations, mainly methodological in nature, that arise from the sample used. The sample was relatively small, and the participants worked in accommodation facilities for unaccompanied minors inland and specifically in Thessaloniki and Kavala, which might be different from working in an island like Lesvos, for example. Therefore, it would be important and appropriate to conduct a larger scale research on the subject with a wider sample to provide a richer picture, as well as to conduct interviews with unaccompanied children and young adults themselves.

Footnotes

Declaration of conflicting interests

The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

ORCID iDs

Kleoniki Ntagka

Despina Cochliou

Author biographies

Kleoniki Ntagka is a Psychologist who works as an Education Social Scientist in the NGO Danish Refugee Council. She completed her MSc in Social Work degree at the University of Nicosia.

Despina Cochliou is an Assistant Professor of Social Work at the University of Nicosia. Her main interests are in social policy, social work with refugees, and social care services management.

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